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Drawings by 

Miss W. S. WOODS, Carlisle, Pa. 

et al 

Copyright, 1918 

by 

W. O. Mc Indoo 



(All rights reserved) 



UNIVERSAL SERVICE ASSOCIATION 

DISTRIBUTORS 

Grand Avenue Temple 

KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI 



Mc Indoo Publishing Company 

Publishers 
KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI 



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OOPYRWKT OfriQf 
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THE EMBLEM OF DEMOCRACY 



Copyright, 191S, W. O. Mclodoo 



^ IQOOOOOOOOOOOOOCIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^ 



The Star-Spangled Banner 



Oh, say, can you see. by the dawn's early light. 

"What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming, 
Whose broad stripe' and bright stars, through the perilous fight, 

O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? 
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there, 
Oh, say does that star-spangled banner yet wave, 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave? 

Oh ! thus be it e'er when freemen shall stand 

Between their loved homes and the war's desolation; 
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the heav'n-rescued land 

Praise the pow'r that hath made and preserv'd us a nation; 
Then conquer we must when our cause it is just, 
And this be our motto, "In God is our trust." 
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 



J^OOOOOOOCOOOOOOC^^ 



4* 



* 

* 

♦ 

* 

* 

* 



•:• 



many titles by which we know George Washing- 



a call from his country. And his response to the 



* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 



•:• 



TRUE PATRIOTS ♦ 

♦ 

"The Cincinnatus of the West" is one of the * 

* 

* ton, the Father of Modern Democracy. ' As Cin- X 

X cinnatus of old left his plow to answer the call of 

his country, so likewise, while in his fields, * 

*** * 

George Washington is here pictured as receiving £ 



♦ 



* call was prompt. * 
% In like manner the young men of 1917 and % 
t '18, in response to the call of country for uni- 
versal service, left their various vocations to 

* y 

% follow the flag to France in defense of Democ- X 

* racy, furnishing the generations to come with 

* an inspiring example of patriotic zeal. * 

* * 

* * 

* t 

| t 

* * 

% It may not be each name and deed £ 

* In granite columns traced, * 

* Nor yet on history's printed page -:• 

* These sacrifices placed; % 

* But, lodged in lasting memory * 
4> Of millions who shall share ♦ 
% The Liberty for which they fought, — X 

* They shall be gathered there. *j! 
% W. O. M. % 
a * 

A A 

A A 

A * 

* * 

* i 

A A 

A A 

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Copyright;, 191S, W. 0- Mclndoo 

THE FATHER OF MODERN DEMOCRACY 



The Growth of American 
Democracy 

A Concise Account of the Establishment and Development 
of Democracy in America. 

and 

America in the 
European War 

An Account of the Causes and Events of 
the European War. 

Bv Elmer E. Rush, M. A. 



Illustrated by Original Paintings, 
Reproduced in Colors. 



Copyright 191S 
\V. O. McINDOO, Kansas City. Missouri 
(All rights reserved.) 



UNIVERSAL SERVICE ASSOCIATION 

Distributors 



Published by 

McINDOO PUBLISHING COMPANY 

Kansas City. Missouri 




THE "AMERICANS CREED." 

By William Tyler Page. 

I believe in the United States of America 
as a government of the people, by the people, 
for the people; whose just powers are derived 
from the consent of the governed ; a democracy 
in a republic; a sovereign Nation of many sov- 
ereign states; a perfect union, one and insep- 
arable ; established upon those principles of free- 
dom, equality, justice and humanity for which 
American patriots sacrificed their lives and for- 
tunes. 

I therefore believe it is my duty to my 
country to love it, to support its constitution, 
to obey its laws, to respect its flag and to defend 
it against all enemies. 



THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 



The Growth of American Democracy 



The establishment of the Federal Union. 

Jeffersonian I lemocracy 

Industrial Change. 

Our Democracy Tested. 

Democracy Nationalized 



The making- of the Federal Union by the construction 
of the constitution was under the guiding influence of those 
master workmen, Madison and Hamilton ; but it was the 
public faith in Washington that supported the whole struc- 
ture and accepted it from the hands of the builders. 

The federal convention met in Philadelphia, May 25. 
1787, the fifty-five delegates electing Washington president 
of the convention. When the several plans of government 
were brought forward, the statesmanship of Hamilton was a 
constructive force in the attainment of nationalism, but the 
silent influence of Washington prevailed in the final mould- 
ing- of its character. 

The convention ended its labors September 17, 1787. It 
had constructed a constitution which represented the accu- 
mulated experience of the people of the time and placed it 
before the people of the states for adoption. 

During the construction of the constitution two par- 
ties appeared, the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The 
Federalists favored a centralized government and succeeded 



6 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 

in organizing the convention and controlling the construction 
of the constitution. The same party secured its adoption, 
and, in the fall of 1788, it carried the first Presidential elec- 
tion and a majority of the state elections. A Federal con- 
gress was elected also, and a majority of the state legisla- 
tures was Federal, which in turn, elected a Federal senate. 
The electors chose Washington president of the United 
States, the vote being unanimous. 

When Washington was inaugurated president of the 
United States April 30, 1789, there were but eleven states 
in the union. North Carolina and Rhode Island reluctantly 
signed the constitution a little later, thus completing the 
list of the original thirteen states, commonly known as the 
Revolutionary States. 

The inaugural ceremonies were scarcely over when the 
new government was called upon to face the grave responsi- 
bility of constructing a national policy. All that had been 
done was to produce a skeleton of government ; it was now 
to be clothed with flesh and blood and receive the breath of 
life. This duty fell upon the Federal party. The first im- 
portant act of congress is known as the Tariff Act of 1789 ; 
it placed a tax on foreign imports to raise revenue and to 
encourage the growth of infant industries. 

Another act of great importance was the creating of a 
cabinet. The supreme court was organized ; a National 
Bank was established; a naturalization law was passed, and 
the national capital was located. Public credit was estab- 
lished by Hamilton's funding bill, a plan by which the old 
Revolutionary war debt was converted into interest bearing 
bonds, which carried a guarantee from congress that all 
former government debts should be paid at their face value. 
An excise tax was placed on distilled spirits. And thus within 
two years the federal party had secured the passage of im- 
portant measures, all tending to the establishment of the 



THK GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 7 

centralization of power ; this was done in the face of strong 
opposition. The Anti-Federalists, also known as the state 
rights party, raised the objection that the foregoing meas- 
ures were unconstitutional. 

The Federal party was construing the constitution with 
a liberal meaning, and in that way they evolved the doctrine 
of implied powers. The opposition adhered to the literal or 
close construction of the constitution, and were horrified at 
the growing tendency toward centralization which in their 
opinion, lead to monarchy. 

The first opportunity of the Federal party to prove the 
power of the constitution was in the summer of 1794 when 
the people of Western Pennsylvania held riotous meetings in 
opposition to the excise tax on whiskey. Washington was 
mild and patient, but firm ; order was restored ; the leaders 
were convicted of treason, but pardoned, and the tax col- 
lected. The government had proved its power to lay and col- 
lect a tax. 

The French Revolution, occurring at this time, made a 
deep impression upon the American people. The Federalists 
had no sympathy with the radical movement, while the 
• Anti-Federalists were enthusiastic in its support. Washing- 
ton saw that a crisis was at hand, that a precedent must be 
established ; he believed that the Republic could not live if it 
allowed itself to take sides in the political broils of Europe. 
He submitted the matter to his cabinet and, with their ap- 
proval, he issued his now famous Proclamation of Neutrality. 
England had shown little respect for the new Republic; 
they still held some western military posts; they refused to 
pay for the slaves carried off at the close of the Revolution. 
England had promised to surrender the forts and pay for 
slaves, but gave as her reason for delay that the United States 
had promised to repeal her obnoxious laws against the loy- 
alists, and had not done so. 



S THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 

The source of greatest irritation, however, was that 
England would not acknowledge the right of expatriation. 
"Once an Englishman always an Englishman" was her motto. 
Natural born Americans were often taken off ships. War 
seemed imminent; Washington greatly desired peace, be- 
cause he knew that a war at that time would endanger the 
independence of the country. Finally a treaty, known as the 
Jay treaty, was secured. 

The treaty was not very favorable to the Americans, 
and could be defended only on the ground that it was prefer- 
able to war. Washington's second term was now drawing to 
a close, and he desired to retire to private life at his planta- 
tion on the Potomac. "No nobler figure ever stood in the 
forefront of a nation's life," says Green, an English Histo- 
rian ; "there was little in his outward bearing to reveal the 
grandeur of soul which lifts his figure, with all the simple 
majesty of an ancient statue, out of the smaller passions, the 
meaner impulses of the world around him. Almost uncon- 
sciously men learned to regard him with a reverence which 
still hushes us in the presence of his memory." 

Washington died December 14, 1799. We all are devo- 
tees at his shrine. He has left a record that can not fade, 
and his name will ever be held sacred in the hearts of all men 
who love human rights and liberty. The Federal party 
elected John Adams to succeed Washington ; he was a schol- 
arly man, but not tactful ; the party lost its popularity, and 
the small coterie still loyal to the president branded the op- 
position as "Jacobins and Miscreants," denounced democracy 
as the government of the worst, while Adams, himself, 
stated that none but the well born is fitted to rule. The 
party enacted a number of obnoxious laws in an effort td 
humble the Anti-Federalists. They had failed to catch the 
spirit of republican institutions ; the Anti-Federalists took 
advantage of the popular wave, and reaped a golden harvest 



THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 9 

by electing- Jefferson president in the autumn election of 
1800. 



Jeffersonian Democracy 

The dawn of the nineteenth century found the Ameri- 
can people awakening to the truly American spirit. Before 
1800, American ideals bore the colonial stamp of that of 
France, or England. The Federal party had given us na- 
tionalism ; it was now essential that democracy be built 
upon it. Jefferson began by attempting to moderate the bit- 
ter felings existing betwen the two parties and called upon 
all to acquiesce in the decision of the majority — the vital 
principal of republics. 

His party had been founded upon opposition to centralized 
power, and the doctrine of strict construction. Jefferson 
gradually withdrew his opposition to centralized power when 
he saw that it was being created by the masses of the people, 
and existed at their pleasure and for their good. The re- 
sponsibility of power nationalized him ; he stepped boldly 
upon Federal ground, that of liberal construction, and pur- 
chased Louisiana from France in 1803, saying, when he did 
so, that he "stretched the constitution until it cracked;" 
strict construction, like the Federal party, was regarded as a 
relic of the past. 

Under the wise statesmanship of Jefferson the public 
awakened to self-consciousness and fortunately discovered 
its coherence and national strength in time for the coming 
war of 1812. The causes of this war lie much farther back 
than the date of its outbreak. Since the days of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, England had been accustomed to stopping 
our vessels at will, and searching for deserted seamen ; the 
custom was becoming more frequent and the insult was 
even augmented by seizing American seamen under the claim 



10 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 

that they were deserters from the British navy. Great 
Britain was engaged in a tremendous war with Napoleon at 
the time and gave no heed to our protests. 

In 1806, Napoleon became master of central Europe. He 
defeated Prussia at Jena, entered Berlin, and issued his fa- 
mous decree blockading the British Isles. Every American 
or other neutral vessel going to, or coming from a British 
port was subject to capture. 

England retaliated by blockading all European ports 
under the control of France or her allies, unless the vessel 
first entered a British port and paid duties. Napoleon then 
declared any vessel subject to capture as lawful prize that 
should enter a British port and pay duty, or submit itself to 
be searched. 

The United States was now between the hammer and 
the anvil, and on December 22, 1807, passed the Embargo 
Act. This was a severe blow to New England, as most of 
the shipping interests were there. 

Jefferson insisted the importance of the Embargo was 
not to be measured in money, but before the year closed it 
was evident to every fair-minded person that it had failed to 
make any impression on the European powers, and on March 
1, 1809, the Act was repealed. 

There was great rejoicing, but it was of short duration. 
The embargo had been raised only after we had been assured 
by the British Minister that England had cancelled her or- 
ders in council, and that France had promised to withdraw 
her decrees. Our government was bewildered by the news 
that the Minister had exceeded his authority, and that 
England had repudiated his acts. The President immediately 
issued a Proclamation forbidding trade with England. Many 
vessels, however, had put to sea; the French decrees had not 
been revoked, and the Americans lost over six millions of dol- 
lars in ships and cargoes being "sequestered" by France. 



THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 11 

It had been a long struggle for the rights of neutral 
commerce. Our flag had been insulted on the high seas, 
British cruisers had hovered over our ports; British traders 
had influenced Indian hostilities on the frontier, and Ameri- 
can citizens had been impressed into the British service. 
For these causes, the United States declared war on Great 
Britain, June 18, 1812. 

Industrial Change 

In the twenty-five years following the war, the Ameri- 
can mind became introspective. It was not deeply concerned 
about treaties, impressment, embargoes, and the open sea; 
its energy was given to canals, turnpikes, tariffs, factories, 
public land, currency, banks, and slavery. The whole coun- 
try experienced an industrial change; in New England, com- 
merce declined and manufactures grew; the. South, however, 
did not suffer the change from one form of industry to an- 
other, but a change from the rise of new conditions in the 
cotton industry. 

The invention of the cotton gin had made the production 
of upland cotton profitable. This brought western land in 
sharp competition with that of the older sea-board planta- 
tions, which resulted in impoverishing their industrial power, 
later to be relegated to the rear politically. 

The old ruling class in New England and in the South 
was disrupted, and the center of power was being transferred 
to the middle and western states, where soon began the 
struggle between the forces of freedom and slavery. 

The Westward March of a People 

During this industrial change New England and New 
York had expanded westward to the Mississippi river, and, 
the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had been admitted 
into the Union. The Ordinance of 1787 had extended the 
Mason and Dixon line as the division between slave and 



Testing Democracy 



The fight at Gettysburg ranks 
as one of the decisive battles of 
history. It Was the supreme strug- 
gles of the American Union for 
life. The valor of the Federal and 
Confederate hosts has never been 
surpassed in the annals of man- 
kind, and the heart of every patriot 
is thrilled by the consciousness 
that the heroism displayed in that 
awful conflict was the heroism of 
Americans. 

The terrible struggle of those 
July days of '63, is portrayed in 
the pictured entitled TESTING 
DEMOCRACY. 



THK GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 13 

free territory westward along the Ohio river to the Missis- 
sippi. The question of its extension beyond the Mississippi 
did not come up until Missouri applied for admission to the 
Union in 1819. 

The Missouri Compromise, two years later, extended 
this line around the northern boundary of Missouri and 
westward along the parallel thirty-six degrees and thirty 
minutes, and declared that all north of this line should be 
free territory. Soon following the Missouri Compromise, the 
north began to oppose slavery from moral rather than from 
economic reasons. The voice of John Juincy Adams was 
heard in the halls of Congress defending the right of peti- 
tion and free speech. 

The abolition of slavery by France, Germany, England, 
and the Spanish-American States, had its influence upon 
northern sentiment. William Lloyd Garrison and Elijah P. 
Love.joy had suffered violence in an attempt to crystallize 
northern sentiment ; each failed, and it was evident a great 
leader was needed. 

In 1850, a bill to admit California could only be passed 
as a part of a compromise which contained valuable conces- 
sions to the South on slavery. At no time after 1850 was 
Congress free from a discussion of slavery. For a short 
time the question was shifted to the plains of Kansas by the 
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854. Three years 
later the Supreme Court attempted to settle all slave con- 
troversies by the Dred Scott decision, which denied a com- 
promise line and allowed a slave owner to take his slave into 
any state or territory, but this resulted in the evasion of 
law and a storm of protest. In the fall election of 1860, the 
responsibility for the settlement of the status of slavery 
was shifted from Congress and the courts to the people of 
the United States, and Abraham Lincoln was elected presi- 
dent. 



1 ! THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 

Our Democracy Tested 

The news that Lincoln had been elected, fell like a pall 
upon the South, and the leaders determined upon secession. 
The North demanded a united nation. The issue was to be 
decided by an armed conflict. The American people were 
now about to engage in the bloodiest of all civil wars in the 
annals of history. 

On February 22, 1861, Jefferson Davis stood at the base 
of Washington's statue in Richmond, Virginia, and was in- 
augurated President of the Confederate States of America. 
Ten days later Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President 
of the United States, taking an oath to preserve and protect 
the union. 

In some respects the South had the advantage of the 
North. One of these was unanimity. The firing on Fort 
Sumpter, however, swept the free states with one grand pa- 
triotic impulse ; the president called for 75,000 volunteers, 
and was answered by 100,000 men, loyal to the Union and 
the democracy established by Washington and Jefferson. 
Events hurried to the climax of arms, and thirty-one mil- 
lions of American citizens divided and faced each other 
across the chasm of disunion. 

The deadly strife lasted for four years. It was inevi- 
table that the South should lose. She was handicaped by 
the very system of bondage she was fighting to maintain ; 
moreover, she lacked that quickening impulse of freedom 
which sustains in the presence of difficulties. The genera- 
tions that opposed have nearly passed away; the bitterest 
recollections are gone; there remains on either side the glory 
of the race, and — 

"No more shall the war cry sever, 

Nor the winding river be red ; 

They banish our anger forever, 

When they laurel the graves of our dead. 



THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 

Under the sod and the dew, 

Waiting the judgment day- — 

Love and tears for the Blue, 

Tears and love for the Gray." 
The news of Lee's surrender, April 9, 1865, brought 
deep peace and thankfulness. They that sowed in tears now 
reaped in joy, only to be plunged into deepest gloom by the 
assassination of the President. 

Looking back through the lens of later knowledge, we 
see the colossal figure of Abraham Lincoln. Posterity does 
not yet fully realize how perfectly his life harmonized with 
that loyal generation of freedom-loving Americans with 
whose aid he solved the stupendous problem of saving the 
Union, and yet destroying slavery. 

Democracy Nationalized 

Upon the patriotism of the American people must rest 
the responsibility of maintaining American democracy. 
Since the time of Lincoln, the people have been called upon 
to declare national policies rather than to elect presidents. 

One fact which has commanded attention is the great 
development of concentrated capital. Every department of 
industry has undergone many changes and every change 
has brought an increased power of production. The century- 
long march across the continent was soon ended ; the fron- 
tier had gone; and the great western plains became the 
battle ground of railroad kings. Today great trunk lines 
with radiating threads of steel connect industrial centers. 

There was a further demand for trade expansion. Then 
came the Spanish-American war which gave us the Philip- 
pine Islands, Porto Riio, and other islands, and an enlarged 
commerce; the commercial invasion of China; the construc- 
tion of the Panama Canal, and the search in remote lands 
for opportunities of trade. 



EXTENDING DEMOCRACY 
In the Philippines 

In the picture entitled "Extending Democracy," is de- 
picted the condition of a people who had known only the 
rule of Autocracy previous to the coming of the American 
to their shores, when Admiral Dewey sent the Spanish 
fleet to the bottom of Manila Bay. The sound of his 
guns as they echoed and re-echoed throughout the Islands, 
was the announcement of the approach of a democratic 
people. In the picture is shown the savage natives, who 
misunderstood the motives of the newcomers, and mis- 
trusted their good intentions. They could not understand 
Democracy, therefore to accomplish its extention it w;is 
necessary to resort to force of arms. 

It is refreshing to review the results. A decade after 
the acquisition of the Philippine Islands by the United 
States, William H. Taft, then Secretary of War, made a 
full report, giving an instructive account of what had been 
accomplished during the period. In sending this report 
to Congress, Theodore Roosevelt, then president of the 
United States, said: 

"No great civilized power has ever managed with such 
wisdom and disinterestedness the affairs of a people com- 
mitted by accident of war to its hands. ' * Save only 
our attitude towards Cuba, I question whether there is a 
brighter page in the annals of international dealing be- 
tween the strong and the weak than the page which tells 
of our doings in the Philippines." And the conditions there 
since have been increasingly satisfactory. 

There were troublesome times in the islands for a long 
time after they came into our possession, and many val- 
uable lives were sacrificed before peace was fully estab- 
lished. It is gratifying now, however, that peace prevails 
throughout the islands, with their population of more than 
7,000,000. The aim has been to extend democracy to the 
people, giving them a greater measure of self government 
as they fit themselves for it, with complete self-gov- 
ernment as the ultimate end. 




opyright, 191S, W. 0. Mclndoo 

EXTENDING DEMOCRACY 



AMERICA AT WAR 17 

In each epoch in the development of our national life, 
we see the dominant power creating - a public policy after its 
own image. The same forces of human interest which have 
operated in the past will continue to operate in the future. 
Organized democracy is gradually formulating its philosophy 
to include all classes of American citizenship and merging 
their economic interests with political action. 

In this country there are those born in other lands, 
standing by those born under the flag, defending our 
democratic institutions. The American democracy today is 
fighting its own battles : the situation is a test of nation- 
alized democracy ; it is the capacity of a people for demo- 
cratic self-government that is on trial. 



Assurance of Democracy 



It is a trite but true saying that 
"in unity there is strength." The 
picture entitled, "THE ASSUR- 
ANCE OF DEMOCRACY," is well 
named. The great chasm between 
the North and the South, which 
culminated in the Civil War, is 
here shown to be closed ; the Blue 
and the Gray are assembled be- 
neath the Stars and Stripes— a 
united people. Here, too, is pic- 
tured the Public School, the "Hope 
of our Country." Other good in- 
fluences are shown ; the content- 
ment of age, the innocence of child- 
hood, the manly "Boy Scout," and 
the benignant clergyman, — these 
good influences permeating the life 
of a united people, whose tradi- 
tions are glorious, and whose flag 
is the most ancient and honorable 
now in existence, give us ample 
ASSURANCE OF DEMOCRACY. 




THE ASSURANCE OF DEMOCRACY 



AMERICA AT WAR 



19 



AMERICA AT WAR 



I. The European Phase: 

Theories. 

1. Dominance of ;i single 
power. 

2. The balance of nations. 

3. International Law. 

4. Arbitration. 
Complications: 

1. German aggressions 

2. The conflict. 

3. Conclusion. 

II. The United States Phase: 

1. The rights of neutrals. 
(An old grievance.) 

2. Germany's attitude. 
(Forced to do it(?) ) 

3. United States protests. 

(a) Precedent (50 years 
ago.) 

(b) The Hague convention. 

(c) Congressional action. 

(d) Lansing's note. 

4. Germany's new policy of 
1916. 

(a) Her offer. 

(b) Submarine activity. 

5. The United States contin- 
ues a desire for peace. 

(a) Political platforms. 

(b) Wilson's peace speech. 
May 27. 

(c) Honotaux's article on 
the situation. 

(d) Our interests confused 
with our powers. 

(e) First efforts at pre- 
paredness. 

(f) Wilson's "olive branch" 
note. January 18. 

(g) Wilson's "peace with- 
out victory" speech, Jan. 

22, 1917. 

6. Diplomatic relations sev- 
ered, February 3, 1917. 

(a) The "safety lane" note. 

(b) Wilson reviewed nego- 
tiations, Feb. 3. 

1. Warning to Germany. 

2. Germany's justification 
answer. 

3. Wilson's reply. 

4. Germany's last note. 

7. The Crisis. 

(a) In American ports. 
1. German vessels seized. 



2. Shipping affected. - 

(b) Public opinion. 

1. Newspapers. 

2. Industrial plants. 

(c) Government activity. 

1. Naval appropriation. 

2. Government buildings 
closed to the public. 

3. Ports guarded. 

(d) Overt acts. 

1. Freight steamer sunk, 
Feb. 3. 

2. Lumber steamer sunk, 
Feb. 11. 

•'!. Laconia steamer sunk, 
Feb. 27. 

4. Algonquin steamer 
sunk, Mar. 12. 

5. Other sinkings, Mar. 
19, et. seq. 

(e) State of war recognized. 

1. Armed neutrality im- 
practicable. 

2. The President advises 
war. 

8. War declared, April 6.. 1917. 

(a) Resolution bv Congress, 
April 6. 

(b) Aims — Wilson's speech 
April 15. 

1. Not selfish. 
2. Against autocracy. 

(c) The declaration received 
in Europe. 

(d) Nature of the struggle. 
!>. Military interests — Persh- 
ing. 

(a) Registration.. June 5. 

(b) Troops to France, June 
26-27. 

(c) Call for recruits, June 
23-30. 

(d) Training camps. 

(e) Aviation. 

(f) Red Cross. 

(g) The Pope's appeal for 
peace, Aug. 14. 

(h) Wilson's reply, 
(i) Food conservation, 
(j) The navv. 
(k) Second Liberty Loan. 
(1) Congress appropriated 
21 billions, Oct. 6. 
(m) The Enemy Acts, passed 
Oct. 14. 
10. Government conservation 
and control. 



20 



AMERICA AT WAR 



1 


,n) Mobilization of Indus- 


18. 




tries. 


If). 


11. 


The Espionage Act. 


20. 


12. 


War with Austria-Hun- 


21. 




gary. 


22. 


13. 


Nations against the Cen- 


28. 




tral Powers. 


24! 


14. 


President's peace terms: 




15. 


Results of Conservation. 


25. 


16. 


Submarine damage. 


26. 


17. 


Close of first year of the 
war. 


27. 



The National Army. 
The National Guard. 
The Allies gain. 
The Russian Revolution. 
Germany checked. 
Three general movements. 
Germany threatens Russia 
and Italy. 
Origin of Venice. 
Closing events. 
The battle of Picardy. 



AMKKICA AT WAR 21 

ORIGIN OF THE WAR AND ITS DEVELOPMENT PRE- 
VIOUS TO AMERICA'S ENTRANCE AS A 
BELLIGERENT 
The German War Machine 

< fermany's < >pportuni1 y. 

Nature of the War, 

Italian and Russian Movements. 

Battles "i Verdun* and the Somme. 

It is well known to the world how, a half century ago, 
Bismarck prepared his war program in order to make Prus- 
sia the ruling state in Germany. In like manner, the pres- 
ent ruler of the German Empire, for twenty-five years, has 
planned to make Germany the ruling power of Europe. 

A large war fund was collected ; they gathered arms 
and munitions and material for making more ; they experi- 
mented with submarines, zeppelins, poison gas and new ex- 
plosives ; they created a navy, hoping thereby to rival Great 
Britain on the sea. 

Either by treaty or by mariiage, they invaded the 
thrones of Russia, Greece, Bulgaria, Roumania and some of 
the lesser states ; the Turkish Empire was reorganized under 
German influence, and its army and navy officers were 
mostly German ; every important country in Europe, and in 
the Western world, became honeycombed with German 
agencies in the guise of friendship. 

The great war machine was complete and the war 
lords were anxious to use it before it grew old, and before 
the other p.owers could prepare to meet it. 
Germany's Opportunity 
Germany placed over against her preparedness, as she 
expressed it, "shop keeping" England, "licentious" France, 
"anarchic" Russia and "money serving" America. Under 
such seemingly favorable conditions she regarded her 
treaties with these, and with lesser powers, as "scraps of 
paper." The assassination of the Austrian duke in Serbia 



22 AMERICA AT WAR 

gave the war lords their opportunity; they affected deep 
insult in the friendly attitude of France toward Serbia. 
Immediately, six great German armies invaded Belgium in 
the hope of finding an unguarded road to Paris. 

The Nature of the War 

From the Belgian invasion to America's entrance into 
the war is a story of three years of terrible warfare new 
to the world; it is a story of huge cannon, poison gas, high 
explosives, motor tanks, trenches, aeroplanes, photography 
and wireless telegraphy. The sea became infested with 
submarines to eclipse all former deeds of privateers or 
pirates ; whole villages of noncombatants were burned in 
their houses or shot and bayoneted if they attempted to 
escape. No such brutal warfare is recorded in history since 
the ancient Assyrian, spattered with blood, stood exultantly 
on pyramids of mangled dead. 

But, when the German commanders turned their backs 
on the Marne and rode hurriedly for their newly entrenched 
battle lines, they knew, and the world knew, that the war 
machine had failed. As Charles Martel, nearly twelve hun- 
dred years before, drove back the Moslems at the battle 
of Tours and saved the world for Christianity, so Marshal 
Joffre beat back the Hun of the twentieth century in the 
week-long battle of the Marne and saved the world again 
from a towering despotism. 

Italian and Russian Movements 

On May 23, 1915, Italy joined the allied nations of 
Great Britain, France and Paissia against the Central Powers 
of Germany, Austria-Hungaria and Turkey. The Central 
Powers were thoroughly prepared for Italy's move and pre- 
vented her from rendering aid to Russia, then hard pressed 
by Germany in Poland. 

Two great Russian armies, one under Rennenkampf, the 
other under Samsonoff, invaded East Prussia and beat the 



AMERICA AT WAR 23 

Prussians at Eytkuytten and Gumbinnen; moving westward 
they soon became separated and confused in their move- 
ments in the Masurian lake region. 

Hindenberg, an old military student of this lake region, 
was immediately called in command of the German forces. 
He defeated the Russians in a decisive battle at Tannenberg 
on August 27 and 28, and what had promised to be a great 
Russian invasion of Prussia was turned into a rapid retreat. 

Turkey, in the meantime, had saved the Dardenelles 
from England. 

The Central powers had lost in the west but had gained 
on the eastern front; however, her hope of defeating the 
Allies was gone. Germany knew that her enemies were 
increasing in strength while she was decreasing. Therefore, 
she decided to fly the dove of peace, while she secretly 
pushed her intrigues close to the Russian Court in the hope 
of detaching Russia from the war. 

The Battles of Verdun and the Somme 

Then came another great western move. The first bat- 
tle of Verdun began February 20 and closed April 9, 1916. 
It was a fearful slaughter; but the enemy seemed to be 
doing what he wanted to do — he was bleeding to death! 

The Germans are said to have lost a quarter of a mil- 
lion men, and Joffre stood victorious on the heights before 
Verdun. Scarcely a month had passed, when, on May 3, the 
Germans again opened on Verdun with one hundred heavy 
guns ; assault followed assault, costing them appalling losses. 
The hill slopes were literally covered with mounds of dead. 
Many heroic efforts were made, all with the same result ; 
wave after wave of the boche infantry was mown down by 
the French gunfire. By the last of August the Germans 
admitted defeat and the second battle of Verdun had ended. 
During the long second battle of Verdun, occurred the 
battle of the Somme. By the middle of June, the Allies 



24 AiMERICA AT WAR 

began a bombardment along the Somme; on July 1, the 
guns were lifted for a barrage and the Allied infantry went 
"over the top" from Gommecourt to Maricourt. This con- 
quered ground had been considered impregnable by the Ger- 
mans. On the 12th of September the Allies bombarded other 
portions of the line, using motor-tanks for the first time. 
On November 9, Sir Douglas Haig brought the battle to a 
close with a victory for the Allies. 

The Allies' Gain 

For three months following the battle of the Somme, 
the armies lived in the trenches, ever vigilant, enduring the 
strain of constant terror; February 4, 1917, the Germans 
began an offensive by opening upon the Allies in six heavy 
attacks in their effort to take Grandcourt; they failed. 

Hindenburg began to retire on the fifth. The German 
line fell back from Miraumont, retreated from Warlencourt. 
Serre, Prisieux, and was defeated at Irles. By the middle 
of March, the Allies were in possession of Bapaume, Peronne, 
Har, Nesle, Noyon and Chumy. 



AMERICA AT WAR , 25 

Brothers in blood ! They who this wrong began 
To wreck our commonwealth, will rue the day 
When first they challenged freemen to the fray, 
And with the Briton dared the American. 

Now are we pledged to win the Rights of Man; 
Labor and Justice now shall have their way, 
And in a League of Peace — God grant we may — 
Transform the earth, not patch up the old plan. 

— -Robert Bridges. 



AMERICA ENTERS THE WORLD WAR 



THE INFRINGEMENT OF OUR NEUTRAL RIGHTS 



EUROPEAN PHASE 

For many years prior to the outbreak of the European 
War and especially since the Franco-Prussian War, it has been 
evident to thinkers that armed neutrality would ultimately 
lead to war. Count Benedetti, the French ambassador at the 
Court of Berlin at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, 
distinctly stated that the German-Austrian alliance of 1882 
would lead to war. He said, "It is, in fact, armed peace 
that the powers have organized ; and can peace under arms 
be lasting?" The Marquis of Salisbury, in 1897, said: "The 
federation of the European nations is the germ of the only 
possible neutral relation of these states which can protect 
civilization from the frightful effects of war." The German 
chancellor in his speech in the Reichstag, August 19, 1915, 
.^aid : "An England able to dictate its will to the world is 
inconsistent with the peace of the world." His statement 
but corroborates the idea that dominance of power in the 
hands of anv one nation is unsafe. 



26 AMERICA AT WAR 

In the history of the world three distinct theories of 
government organization have been tried and found want- 
ing. First, the dominance of nations by one great world 
power; as in the case of Greece under Alexander, and Rome 
under Julius Caesar. Second, after the Napoleonic wars, there 
was revived the old theory of the balance of nations, under 
which certain nations were united in offensive and defensive 
warfare. Group alliances were formed by which it was hoped 
to maintain peace and order. Gradually, International La'w 
was developed as a means of determining the relationships of 
nations. 

These methods of organization have all failed. They 
have been built upon a false foundation, the principle of 
peace by armament. Any plan, to be lasting, must recon- 
struct international relationships on the basis, not of war 
but of peace ; it must be determined, moreover, not by a 
single dominant power nor by a group of powers, but by a 
unity of power. It must place the United Nations as 
guardians over the rights of each nation. 

The nations must discover a plan by which they may 
relieve themselves of the tremendous burden of armies and 
engines of destruction. As the Europe of Napoleon was not 
that of Charlemagne, so modern Europe is beyond that of 
Napoleon's time. Civil and religious liberty have been estab- 
lished; scientific thought has progressed, and the growth of 
democracy has produced new and urgent problems making 
arbitration preferable to war. 

The German Government is directly in opposition to the 
attainment of any such international peace. The history of 
German aggression illustrates this. Von Treitschke, the Ger- 
man historian, so well formulates the German principle of 
the right of single, selfish domination asserted by mere 
superiority of power, when he said, "International treaties 
are no absolute limitation but a voluntary self-limitation of 



AMERICA AT WAR 27 

the State, and only for such time as the State may find it 
policy has always been upheld by Germany. It was on 
January 18, 1896, in the throne room of a castle in Berlin, 
that William II. proclaimed his "welt-politik" — the world- 
wide policy of the Empire. Henceforth, Germany wished to 
be represented everywhere, to aid in the adjustment of all 
controversies, in order to obtain German interests and 
advantages. 

Consistent with this policy is the so-called justification 
for the invasion of Belgium. The German Chancellor, August 
14, 1914, in his speech in the Reichstag, said: "We are 
now in a state of necessity, and necessity knows no law. 
Our troops have occupied Luxemburg and perhaps are already 
on Belgium soil. Gentlemen, that is contrary to the dictates 
of international law." German policy holds that, in the 
relation of nations, moral considerations do not enter in ; 
that might makes right ; that the governmental unit is state 
absolutism and that "each state is primarily and ultimately 
concerned for itself and itself alone; that its interests over- 
ride its obligations, when its necessities demand ; that 
treaties, however specific and solemnly made, shall not be 
considered binding;" that they are mere scraps of paper to 
be tossed aside at will. 

The conflict, then, which is slowly but surely drawing 
all civilized nations into it, is a conflict between democracy 
and absolutism; between rebarbarization under the "blood- 
and-iron" policy, and justice and liberty under constitution- 
alism. The war is not primarily a war of aggression, but 
a war over the principle of aggression. 

United States Phase 

What, now, has America to do with this problem of 
European government and balance of power? According to 
the statement in the Monroe Doctrine, "In the wars of the 



28 AMERICA AT WAK 

European powers, in matters relating to themselves we have 
never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy 
to do so." President Monroe announced our policy in 1823 
based upon the theory that "America had a set of interests 
apart from those of Europe and that Europe had interests 
apart from us." This is not true today, however. We are 
neither physically nor commercially isolated as we were 
then ; distance no longer separates or protects the nations 
of one continent from those upon another. We have 
assumed, together with this increasingly intimate relation- 
ship with European powers, a likewise increasing obligation 
in regard to international problems and principles. And 
while the Monroe doctrine establishes the principle of non- 
interference, it also recognizes the right of self preservation, 
since Monroe said: "It is only when our rights are invaded 
or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make prep- 
arations for our defense." 

Germany's Attitude 

The German submarine policy seriously menaced our 
rights as neutrals. The question of neutrality has been one 
of deep concern to the United States; in 1798 it caused 
a state of war to exist with France ; it caused the war with 
Great Britain in 1812; and it was the cause of our declara- 
of war against Germany April 6, 1917. 

On February 4, 1915. Germany announced to all nations 
that she intended to sink every enemy merchant ship found 
in the waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland with- 
out regard for the lives of its crew and passengers; more- 
over, she warned all neutral ships to steer clear of those 
"waters, since it might be difficult to distinguish them from 
hostile ships. She was forced to this action, she said, as 
a retaliation for England's violation of international law 
upon the water by abolishing the distinction between abso- 



AMERICA AT WAR -'•' 

lute and conditional contraband, by seizing German prop- 
erty and subjects on neutral ships and by declaring the 
waters of the North Sea the seat of war, thus rendering 
all navigation on those waters exceedingly dangerous. Ac- 
cording to the German interpretation, the English had 
"established a blockade of neutral coasts and ports which 
is contrary to the elementary principles of international 
law," measures which would in effect "reduce the German 
people by famine." In reply, we warned the German govern- 
ment in the most explicit terms not to destroy any mer- 
chant vessel of the United States and not to cause the death 
of American citizens. 

United States Protests 

±ne loss of American life due to deliberate German sub- 
marine attack in defiance of this warning would be a long 
story. The first American to lose his life was Leon Chester 
Thresher, a passenger on the British liner Falaba, bound 
from Liverpool to West Africa ; the liner was torpedoed 
and sunk March 28, 1915, off Milford, England. Of 242 
persons, 136 were saved. The first American ship attacked 
was the Gulflight, off the Scilly Islands, May 1. 1915; it 
was an oil tanker from Port Arthur, Texas, bound for 
Rouen, France. Three lives were lost; the ship was towed 
to port, damaged.' The German government acknowledged 
the attack but claimed it to be an accident; expressed its 
regrets and promised to pay damages. 

If the two previous attacks were "accidents," the first 
deliberate attack by a German submarine under military 
orders was the sinking of the Lusitania, which shocked 
civilization and brought America to the verge of war. 
The vessel was sunk off Old Head of Kinsale, near Liver- 
pool, May 7. 1915; it was unarmed and carried 1,257 
passengers, 1,198 of whom lost their lives, including 124 



:;0 AMERICA AT WAR 

Americans. Our government contended that this act was 
"unlawful, inhuman and a violation of many sacred prin- 
ciples of justice and humanity." We refused to accept the 
palliations put forth by Germany for the deed and based 
our protest upon very distinct grounds. As President Wilson 
so aptly said: "we are contending for something much 
greater than any right of property or privileges of com- 
merce. The government of the United States is contending 
for nothing less high and sacred than the rights of human- 
ity. * * * It is upon this principle of humanity as 
well as upon the law founded upon this principle that the 
United States must stand." 

The protest of the United States was founded upon 
two statements. First, her own position, expressed origi- 
nally more than fifty years ago in the Articles of Instruc- 
tion to Armies in the Field : 

Article IV. It is incumbent upon those who 
administer martial law to be strictly guided by the 
principles of justice, honor and humanity, virtues 
adorning a soldier even more than other men. 

Article XXVIII. Unjust or inconsiderate re- 
taliation (reprisal) removes the belligerents fur- 
ther and further from the mitigating rules of reg- 
ular war and by rapid steps leads them nearer to 
the internecine wars of savages. 

The other statement upon which the position of the 
United States rests is that of a principle to which Ger- 
any, together with all the belligerents in this war, approved, 
as evidenced by its signature at the Hague Convention in 
1907: "The high contracting parties clearly do not intend 
that an unforseen case should in the absence of a written 
undertaking be left to the arbitrary judgment of military 
commanders. Until a more complete code of laws of war 
have been issued, the high contracting parties deem it expe- 



AMERICA AT WAR 35 

dient to declare that, in cases not included in the regula- 
tions adopted by them, the inhabitants and the belligerents 
remain under the protection of the rules and principles of 
the laws of nations as they result from the usages estab- 
lished among civilized people from the laws of humanity and 
the dictates of the public conscience." 

As to whether or not the sinking of the Lusitania vio- 
lated the principles of humanity and the dictates of pub- 
lic conscience was a matter of individual opinion. The 
fact of the tragedy remained; the United States govern- 
ment was faced by a definite situation due to German mili- 
tarism, as opposed to American ideas of justice and right. 
Wilson's reluctance to admit the gravity of the situation 
is intimated in his speech of May 10, 1915, which aroused 
a flood of criticism and comment both at home and abroad. 
He said: "The example of America must be a special 
example. The example of America must be an example not 
merely of peace because it will not fight, but of peace 
because peace is the healing and elevating- influence of the 
world and strife is not. There is such a thing as a man 
being too proud to fight. There is such a thing as a 
nation being so right that it does not need to convince 
others by force that it is right." 

In view of the Lusitania disaster, a resolution was pro- 
posed in Congress ordering Americans off belligerent ships. 
Sweden, in accordance with Germany's like request to all 
neutral nations, complied, passing a resolution warning 
her subjects to keep off armed ships. But the passage 
of such a resolution to abridge the rights of American 
citizens would have been humiliating. As the President 
said: "To forbid our people to exercise their rights for 
fear we might be called upon to indicate them would be a 
deep humiliation, indeed. It would be an implicit, all but 
an explicit acquiescence in the violations of the rights of 
man everywhere. It would be a deliberate abdication of 



32 AMERICA AT WAR 

our hitherto proud position as spokesman, even among the 
turmoil of war, for the law and the right." 

The protest of the United States was not against 
German policy alone. It is interesting to note that, on 
May 24, 1915, Secretary Lansing sent a vigorous message 
to France and England protesting against interference with 
neutral mails. 

. Meanwhile, German submarine activity continued. The 
ship, Ordena, was attacked and escaped only because of 
her speed. This attack, after the assurance for the safety 
of passenger liners, aroused American public opinion. The 
German government insisted that the commander had 
"failed to understand orders." On July 25, 1915, came the 
first complete destruction of an American ship by a sub- 
marine; the Leelanaw of New York, bound from Archangel 
to Belfast with flax, which is contraband, was sunk. The 
crew was saved. On August 19, 1915, the White Star liner, 
Arabic, bound from Liverpool to New York, was sunk near 
the grave of the Lusitania. Thirty Americans were on 
board; all but two were saved. Forty-eight lives in all were 
lost. One American of the crew of the Allan liner, Hes- 
perian, Avas lost on September 4, 1915. The Anconia was 
destroyed by an Austrian submarine in the Mediterranean, 
November 7, 1915, bound from Naples to New York. Twelve 
Americans were on board ; nine were lost. , On December 3, 
1915. a submarine fired on the American aid steamer. Com- 
munipaw, bound from Portici, Italy, to Alexandria, Egypt. 
No damage was done ; the enemy vessel was presumably, 
Austrian. The American oil steamer, Petrolite, was stopped 
two days later off the coast of Tripoli and robbed of stores. 
Diplomatic negotiations over the case were unsatisfactory 
and prolonged. American Counsul, McNeeley, lost his life, 
together with one or two other Americans, December 30. 
1915, with the destruction of the Persia, a British liner, on 



AMERICA AT WAR 33 

her way to the Orient. Germany, Austria, and Turkey de- 
nied responsibility. Assurances were given for what 
Germany termed "cruiser warfare" which involved a promise 
not to sink any peaceful ships without warning or providing 
for the safety of those aboard. 

Germany's New Policy 

The Teutonic powers announced a new policy to become 
effective after March 1, 1916. to the effect that they would 
sink armed ships of enemy nations without Warning, no 
matter who was on board. The purpose of the Reichstag 
seemed to be to cut off English trade. Their offer to the 
United States Government is significant, as revealed in a 
note to America, charging England with forcing her into 
submarine warfare and offering to observe the rules of in- 
ternational law prevailing before the war if England would 
do likewise. 

The policy of sinking merchant ships without warning 
is illustrated in the Sussex disaster, which is the culmination 
of a series of outrages. It was a French channel steamer 
between Folkstone and Dieppe, attacked March 24, 1916. No 
warning was given ; the vessel was unarmed ; nearly 50 lives 

were lost. 

The question was whether the time had come to sever 
diplomatic relations with Germany. Secretary Lansing 
cabled Ambassador Gerard to inquire directly of the Berlin 
authorities concerning responsibility for the destruction of 
the Sussex and other vessels. In reply, in a note of April 
10th, the German government admitted having sunk a 
vessel in the English channel at almost the exact time and 
place but contended that it was not the Sussex. The evi- 
dence on their side is weak, however,. Affidavits were 
secured from American survivors who stated that they had 
seen the wake of a torpedo. Eye witnesses testified to the 
fact; fragments of apparatus were identified as parts of 



M AMERICA AT WAR 

a torpedo rather than a mine, some of the parts being: for- 
warded to Washington as evidence. 

United States Desires Peace 

Even with these accumulated wrongs, the American 
people desired peace. This attitude is clearly stated in the 
Democratic platform, June 16, 1916. "The people of the 
United States love peace. They respect the rights and 
covet the friendship of all other nations. They desire 
neither any additional territory nor any advantages which 
cannot be peacefully gained by their skill, their industry 
or their enterprise; but they insist upon having absolute 
freedom of national life and policy, and feel that they owe 
it to themselves and to the role of spirited independence 
which it is their sole ambition to play, that they should ren- 
der themselves secure against the hazard of interference 
from any quarter and should be able to protect their rights 
upon the seas or in any part of the world. We hold that 
it is the duty of the United States to use its power, not 
only to make itself safe at home but also to make secure 
its just interests throughout the world, and both for this 
end and in the interest of humanity to assist the world in 
securing settled peace and justice." 

Wilson's speech before the League to Enforce Peace, 
May 27, 1916', intimates in general that the United States 
is willing to serve the present belligerents in the matter of 
peace negotiations, if they so desire. He says: "We are 
not mere discontented lookers-on. We are participants 
whether we would or not in the life of the world." More- 
over, it is clear that "the principle of public right must 
henceforth take precedence over the individual interests of 
particular nations, and -the nations of the world must in 
some way band themselves together to see that right pre- 
vails as against any sort of selfish aggression; that hence- 



AMERICA AT WAR 35 

forth alliance must not be set up against alliance, under- 
standing against understanding, but that there must be a 
common agreement for a common object and that at the 
heart of that common object must be the inviolable rights 
of peoples and of mankind. * * * We believe these funda- 
mental things: (1) that every people has a right to choose 
the sovereignty under which it shall live; (2) that the 
small states of the world have a right to enjoy the same 
respect for their sovereignty and for their territorial 
integrity that great and powerful nations expect and insist 
upon: (3) that the world has a right to be free from 
every disturbance of its peace that has its origin in aggres- 
sion and disregard to the rights of peoples and nations." 

Believing in these principles, we were confronted by, a 
situation rather than a mere theory. The question was, 
as Cabriel Hanatoux puts it in the Paris Figaro: "Can an 
American citizen go to Europe in safety, or can he not?" He 
continues: "North America is regarded by Germany as an 
enemy. Americans in that country are no less under sus- 
picion than the English; our committees know that Amer- 
ican citizens connected with charitable bodies have been 
driven out of Serbia and Montenegro, because it was not 
desired that any impartial or pitying eye should be present 
at the systematic and methodical strangling of a race." 
Attempts were made against American industry: "every- 
where this underhand hostility shows itself. Events are 
unrolling in such a way that they carry with them, like an 
avalanche, all that seek to escape them. Germany has put 
America up against the wall, has forced her to declare her- 
self. The die is cast." As Wilson so aptly said: "Our inter- 
ests are now confused with our powers." Preparation for 
action was necessary. 

The House and Senate agreed upon a practical Defense 
Program in case of need. This program required 



36 AMERICA AT WAR 

$661,418,000, $110,000,000 to be available at once for the 
Navy. For maintenance of the reorganized army and sup- 
plies, Congress appropriated $267,597,000. Provision was 
made for the extension and improvement of coast defenses 
with appropriations aggregating $25,748,000. Congress also 
provided for the creation of a Council for National Defense 
composed of Cabinet officials and citizen experts to co-ordi- 
nate the military, industrial and natural resources of the 
country in time of war. 

December 18, 1916, President Wilson sent an "olive 
branch" note to all belligerent and neutral powers. The 
Secretary of State hastened to explain that the President's 
note was not a peace offer but merely an effort to induce 
the belligerents to define the end for which they were fight- 
ing. In the note the President suggested, "that an early 
occasion be sought to call out from all the nations now at 
war such an avowal of their respective views as to the 
terms upon which the war might be concluded and the 
arrangements which would be deemed satisfactory as a 
guaranty against its renewal or the kindling of any simi- 
lar conflict in the future as would make possible, frankly 
to compare them." He is indifferent as to the means taken 

to accomplish this In the measures to be taken 

to secure the future peace of the world the people and 
the government of the United States are as vitally and as 

directly interested as the governments now at war 

It may be that peace is nearer than we know; that the 
terms which the belligerents on the one side and on the 
other, would deem it necessary to insist upon, are not so 
irreconcilable as some have feared ; that an interchange 
of views would clear the way at least for conference and 
make the permanent concord of the nations a hope of the 
immediate future, a concert of nations imediately prac- 
ticable." 



AMERICA AT WAR 37 

The action of the President was received with distinct 
approval throughout the Central Empires; the Entente na- 
tions, however, resented the action bitterly. In neutral 
countries the note was approved officially except by Spain, 
which, however, was unofficially well-disposed. Sentiment 
in the United States upheld the action of Wilson. The 
following resolution was adopted by the Senate. December 
20, 1916: 

"Resolved, that the Senate approves and strongly in- 
dorses the request of the President in the diplomatic notes 
of December 18 to the nations now engaged in war, that 
those nations state terms upon which peace might be 
discussed." 

January 22, President Wilson delivered an important 
Senate address on "Permanent Peace." His initial state- 
ment was that America's participation was certain. "It is 
inconceivable that the people of the United States should 
play no part in that great enterprise." While we need 
force to make peace secure, yet the peace must be a "peace 
without victory." "Only a peace between equals can last. 
No peace can last or ought to last which does not recog- 
nize and accept the principle that governments derive all 
their just powers from the consent of the governed and 
that no right anywhere exists to hand peoples about from 
sovereignty to sovereignty as if they were property." Pres- 
ident Wilson further stated that there must be freedom of 
the seas. "The paths of the sea must alike in law and 
in fact be free." The speech in closing practically offered 
the Monroe Doctrine to the- world. "No nation should seek 
to extend its policy over any other nation or people but 
every people should be left free to determine its own policy. 
its own way of development, unhindered, unthreatened, 
unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." 

The United States severed diplomatic relations with 



38 AMERICA AT WAR 

the German Empire, February 3, 1917, by dismissing- Count 
von Bernstorff, the German ambassador, and by recalling 
James W. Gerard, American ambassador at Berlin. 

Diplomatic Relations Severed 

The break came in consequence of a note issued by 
Germany on January 31, 1917, to the fact that, beginning 
February 1, merchant ships bound to or from allied ports 
would be sunk without warning. A safety zone leading to 
Falmouth, England, extending through the prohibited zone 
bordering Holland, England, and France, and including parts 
of the Mediterranean, was designated in the note to America. 
One American vessel a week, carrying passengers only, would 
be allowed to proceed through this lane unmolested, pro- 
vided there were no contraband on board and the vessel 
conspicuously marked by a design indicated by the German 
admiralty. 

President Wilson, on the 3d of February, addressed 
Congress, reviewing briefly the content of negotiations be- 
tween the two countries from March 24, 1916, the date of 
the sinking of the Sussex, to date. After the sinking of 
the Sussex, the note of the United States government to 
Germany stated that "unless the Imperial German Govern- 
ment should now immediately declare and effect an abandon- 
ment of its present methods of subamrine warfare against 
passenger and freight carrying vessels, the Government of 
the United States can have no choice but to sever diplomatic 
relations with the German Empire altogether." In reply to 
this declaration Germany assured the United States that 
"the Imperial German Government is prepared to do its 
utmost to confine the operations of war for the rest of its 
duration to the fighting force of the belligerents; but 
neutrals cannot expect that Germany, forced to fight for 
her existence, shall for the sake of neutral interests restrict 
the use of an effective weapon if her enemy is permitted to 



AMERICA AT WAR S» 

continue to apply at will methods of warfare violating the 
ends of international law." 

Germany's reference to the enemy's violation was based 
upon the Allies' declaration of July 8, 1916, in which they 
announced their abandonment of the Declaration of London 
and their adoption of new regulations concerning blockade 
and contraband. 

The United States note in reply to Germany stated that 
this government "cannot for a moment entertain, much less 
discuss, a suggestion that respect by German naval authori- 
ties for the rights of citizens of the United States upon 
the high seas should in any way or in the slightest degree 
be made contingent upon the conduct of any other gov- 
ernment, affecting the rights of neutrals and noncom- 
batants. Responsibility in such matters is single, not joint ; 
absolute, not relative." To this note, the German Govern- 
ment made no reply. 

On January 31, 1917, the German Ambassador handed 
to the secretary of state the following statement : 

"Germany will meet the illegal measures of her enemies 
by forcibly preventing, after February 1, 1917, in a zone 
around Great Britain, France, Italy, and in all the eastern 
Mediterranean, all navigation, that of neutrals included, 
from and to England and from and to France. All ships 
met within the zone will be sunk." President Wilson says: 
"I think you will agree with me that, in view of the declara- 
tion which suddenly and without intimation of any kind 
deliberately withdraws the solemn assurance given in the 
Imperial German Government's note of the 4th of May, 1916, 
this government has no alternative consistent with the 
dignity and honor of the United States, but to take the 
course which in its note of the 18th of April, 1916, it an- 
nounced it would take, in the event that the German govern- 
ment did not declare and effect an abandonment of the 



40 AMERICA AT WAR 

methods of submarine warfare which it was then employing 
and to which it purposes again to resort." 

The Crisis 

American ports were greatly affected by the break 
with Germany. German vessels were at once damaged by 
their crews so as to be useless without costly repair. An 
example of this was the Kronprinzessen Cecelie, valued at 
$4,500,000. Thirty Teutonic steamers caught in New York 
harbor were valued at $29,000,000. German ships Were de- 
tained in the Panama Canal Zone and in the Philippine Is- 
lands, and at Colon, Panama, the German merchant vessels 
were discovered to have certain parts of their machinery 
removed and, in some instances, there was evidence of 
preparation for the sinking of these vessels. 

Solely for the purpose of protecting the several harbors 
and other shipping and property interests, steps were taken 
to prevent damage, but none of the ships were seized and in 
all cases the commanders and crews were informed that the 
government of the United States had made no seizures and 
claimed no right of vessels, and did not deny the right of 
the commander and crew to dismantle the vessel if they 
saw fit, so long as the destruction was accomplished in a 
way which would not obstruct navigable port waters or 
injure or endanger other shipping or property. 

Secretary of the Navy, Daniels, ordered the crews of 
the German auxiliary cruisers Kronprinz Wilhelm and Prinz 
Eitel Friedrich, both at Philadelphia, to be placed in isolation 
barracks. Other German and Austrian ships were placed 
under guard. American seizure of German ships Was 
rumored, but February 4th the government announced that 
such a step had not been contemplated. 

The port of New York was sealed on the night of 
January 31, 1917. American vessels were detained, causing 



AMKUICA AT WAR 41 

serious delays in mails and cargo, also interfering with the 
conveyance of passengers. The Standard Oil Company of 
New Jersey recalled its vessels bound for the danger zone. 
Other companies adopted the same policy. No mail was sent 
from New York to Liverpool after the departure of the 
Philadelphia, January 27, until February 12, on the White 
Star Liner Cedric. The State Department announced that no 
convoys would be provided for ships bound to go through 
the danger zone, the government policy being that the 
nation would interfere only in case of an "overt act." After 
the German note of January 31, only five American freight- 
ers had left for the danger zone up to February 19. 

Public Opinion 

Approval was expressed throughout the country upon 
the severance of relations with Germany. Newspapers with 
one consent indorsed the action of the President and indi- 
cated a willingness to support him. The German-American 
press expressed regret that severance was necessary but 
affirmed their intention to stand by America. State legis- 
latures in session and governors telegraphed their approval. 
Offers poured in from industrial centers all over the country 
to place their plants in the hands of the government if 
they were needed. February 12th, the National Defense 
Council met at Washington and took premilinary steps to 
take over the regulation of industry in case of hostility. 

Government Activity 

On February 12, the House passed the Naval Appropria- 
tion Bill of $368,553,388.07. The amendment to this bill is 
noteworthy, as reaffirming our policy of arbitration in mat- 
ters of international dispute. "It is hereby reaffirmed to 
be the policy of the United States to adjust and settle its 
international disputes through mediation or arbitration to 



42 AMERICA AT WAR 

the end that war may be honorably avoided." The bill in- 
cludes a clause giving the President power to commandeer 
shipyards and munition factories in time of war. It also 
calls for the building of three battleships, one battle cruiser, 
three scout cruisers, fifteen destroyers, one destroyer tender 
and eighteen submarines. 

Immediately after the departure of Count Bernstorff, 
government buildings and navy yards were closed to the 
public; the wireless stations were taken over by government 
authorities; guards were placed at important arsenals. State 
authorities set a watch at bridges, subway entrances and 
water supply reservoirs. A watch was placed at all seaports 
to prevent damage to harbors. The Panama Canal was 
especially guarded. One million dollars was appropriated 
by the New York legislature for the protection of New 
York property. A federal fort was commenced at Rocka- 
the harbor and surrounding coasts. A net of heavy steel 
wire was stretched between Sandy Hook and Rockaway 
Point to protect New York Harbor from submarines. During 
daylight, the net is lowered to permit vessels to pass 
through the channels. From sunset to sunrise the net is 
raised to bar all ingress to submarines at any depth. Simi- 
lar steps were taken for the protection of other harbors on 
the Atlantic coast. 

President Wilson addressed Congress February 26, 1917. 
asking for authority to supply armament to American mer- 
chant ships and to employ any other instrumentality that 
might be needed to protect American ships and people in 
their legitimate pursuit on the sea. He said: "It would 
be foolish to deny that the situation is fraught with the 
gravest possibilities and dangers. No thoughtful man can 
fail to see that the necessity for definite action may come 
at any time if we are, in fact and not in word merely, to 
defend our elementary rights as a neutral nation. It would 



AMERICA AT WAR 43 

be most imprudent to be unprepared. I wish to feel that 
the authority and the power of the Congress are behind me 
in whatever it may become necessary for me to do. Since 
it has unhappily proved impossible to safeguard our neutral 
rights by diplomatic means against the unwarranted in- 
fringements they are suffering at the hands of Germany, 
there may be no recourse but to armed neutrality, which we 
shall know how to maintain and for which there is abundant 
American precedent." The bill passed the House but was 
blocked in the Senate by unlimited debate and failed to 
reach a vote before Congress expired, March 4. The famous 
"manifesto" was signed by the majority, however, indicating 
that 75 out of the 96 members were in favor of the bill, 
and that its passage was prevented only by a minority group 
of filibusters. 

The President appealed to the people in a protest against 
the action of the Senate. "The inability of the Senate to 
act has rendered some of the most necessary legislation of 
the session impossible at a time when the need of it was 
most pressing and most evident. The remedy? There is 
but one remedy. The only remedy is that the rules of the 
Senate shall be so altered that it can act." A wave of 
indignation swept over the country, denouncing the Senate 
filibuster. In an extra session of March 8, 1917, the Senate 
rules were revised, eliminating the former desultory prac- 
tices. 

Overt Acts 

In his speech of February 3, 1917, Wilson had stated 
that only actual "overt acts" could bring about a condition of 
war between the United States and Germany. On that day, 
the American freight steamer Housatonic, bound from Gal- 
veston to Liverpool with grain, was sunk by a German 
submarine. On February 12, the American sailing schooner 
Lyman M. Law, carrying lumber from Maine to Italy, was 



44 AMERICA AT WAR 

destroyed off the coast of Sardinia. Five Norwegian steam- 
ers with Americans on board were sunk without adequate 
warning in the next ten days. February 27, the Cunard liner 
Laconia, bound from New York to Liverpool, loaded with 
foodstuffs, cotton, and war material, carrying 43 passengers 
and a crew of 216, was sunk off the Irish coast. Twelve 
persons perished in the bitter weather before they were 
picked up by a patrol boat. The next serious overt act 
was the sinking of the American steamship Algonquin, 
when bound from New York to London with foodstuffs. 
Public opinion burst into intense excitement March 19, when 
it was announced that within the preceding twenty-four 
hours three American ships, the City of Memphis, the Illi- 
nois and the Vigilancia, had been sunk by German subma- 
rines near the English coast. 

State of War Recognized 

March 9, President Wilson had issued a proclamation, 
announcing his decision to arm American ships, but armed 
neutrality in the present crisis was found to be imprac- 
ticable. The President clearly recognized, and stated, the 
necessity of War in his Senate address of April 2, 1917. "The 
present German submarine warfare against commerce is a 
warfare against mankind. It is war against all nations. 
Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it. 
Our motive will not be revenge or the victorious assertion 
of the physical might of the nation, but only the vindication 
of right, of human right, of which we are only a single 
champion. Armed neutrality, it now appears, is imprac- 
ticable. I advise that the Congress declare the recent course 
of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing 
less than war against the government and people of the 
United States. He said in part: 

"It is a fearful thing to lead this great, peaceful people 
into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars — 



AMERICA AT WAR 45 

civilization itself seeming to be in the balance. But the 
right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for 
the things which we have always carried nearest our 
hearts, — for democracy, for the rights of those who submit 
to authority and have a voice in their own governments, 
for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal 
dominion of right by such a concert of free people as shall 
bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world 
itself at last free." 

Thus we see that out of the entangling broils of 
Europe arose our controversy with the German Empire. 
Beyond any question our neutrality was real ; we ad- 
hered to the treasured tradition of non-interference, and 
the thought of taking part in the war was far from our 
minds. Our international principles, briefly stated, were as 
follows : 

(1) The Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine was a pledge 
to defend the new world from European aggression. 

(2) The freedom of the seas. This doctrine we up- 
held in every naval conference in support of International 
Law, based upon the consent of the governed. 

(3) Arbitration. In upholding the principle of arbitra- 
tion we advocated a permanent world court. 

By signing arbitration treaties with nations both great 
and small, we made plain our purpose to forestall by every 
means available the recurrence of war. These principles 
failed to gain recognition. Neutrality had lost to the 
submarine. The Germans regarded aggressive war as the 
final measure' of a nation's worth. One of her writers voiced 
the German sentiment when he said : "The time is near when 
the earth must be conquered by the Germans." Thus the 
shadows deepened over the American people, but the spirit 
of American Democracy remained true to its ideals, and we 
reluctantly entered the war April 6, 1917. 



16 AMKRICA AT WAI! 



AMERICA 

A prosperous, mighty Nation, — 

A land of true Democracy 

Where men may thrive who "hold or drive" 

A land fulfilling prophesy ! 

Ever watchful, hopeful Nation, — 
A land of real sincerity, 
Where all abhor the shades of war ; 
A land of faith and charity. 

A powerful, fearless Nation, — 
A land both chivalrous and strong, 
Which does not fight to show its might 
But will avenge a despot's wrong. 

America, America ! 

The land of Father Washington. 

America, America! 
The sacred land of Lincoln's care ; 
The proud land of Woodrow Wilson. 
With gallant Patriots everywhere 
Who call for World Democracy — 
Who cry against Autocracy. 

The greatest tribute paid to man 
Is this, "He is American!" 

— W. O. M. 




Copyright. 10IS. \V. O. Mclndoo 

AMERICA FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY 

(ON LAND AND IN AIR) 



AMERICA AT WAR 4? 

FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR, APRIL 6, 1917, TO APRIL 

6, 1918. 

I. War — Events in United States: 

1. Declared April 6, 1917. 

2. Cause. 

3. Immediate Result: 

a. Congratulations from Europe. 

b. German vessels seized April 6. 

c. Diplomatic relations broken with Austria, 
April 8. 

II. Nature of the Struggle. 

1. Military. 

2. Industrial. 

III. Military Interests. 

1. First Liberty Bond, June 15, 1917. 

2. First gun fired April 19, 1917. 

3. Pershing in France June 26, 1917. 
(The life of Pershing.) 

4. Conscription Bill May 18, 1917. 

5. First draft July 20, 1917. 

6. jRecruiting week June 23-30, 1917. 

7. Training camps established. 

8. Aircraft Bill July 24, 1917. 

9. Work of the Red Cross. 

10. The Pope's Appeal, August 14, 1917. 

11. Wilson's reply, August 27, 1917. 

12. Germany's attitude toward the note. 

IV. Industrial Movements. 

1. The Food Administration Act, August 10, 1917. 

2. The Government Wheat Corporation formed 
August, 1917. 

3. The Coal Administrator appointed August 23, 
1917.. 

4. Shipping Act. 



48 AMERICA AT WAR 

5. Plans of the Navy. 

6. The Second Liberty Loan. 

7. Centralization of the Railroads, April 11, 1917. 

8. Government Control of the Railroads, Decem- 
ber 26, 1917. 

9. Coal given right-of-way December 29, 1917. 
10. Espionage Act. 

V. Later Activities. 

1. War declared with Austria, December 7, 1917. 

2. Nations Against the Central Powers. 

3. Wilson's Peace Terms, January 8, 1918. 

4. War Saving Societies. 

5. Evidence of actual aid given the Allies. 

6. Efficiency of the War Department — Secretary 
Baker, on January 10, 1918. 

7. Secretary Baker's Speech, January 28, 1918. 

8. Summary of submarine damage to date, to 
ourselves and to the enemy. 

9. Sinking of the Tuscania, February 5, 1918. 

10. American troops on the Lorraine Line, January 
31, 1918. 

The Declaration of War 
Preceding our entrance into the great world war, there 
existed on the side of Germany a state of war against the 
United States, and on the side of the United States a state 
of peace toward Germany. Whether we should remain 
at peace under the accumulated and progressive wrongs, 
whether we should use force in defense of our national and 
normal rights was a solemn question. Our government 
wisely confides the answer of such a question to Congress. 
Its answer was worth the patriotic councils of a free and 
powerful nation. Its answer was war; war for the sake of 
democracy; war against the withering bonds of autocracy; 
war for the ultimate peace of mankind. 



AMERICA AT WAR 49 

Since the establishment of our government in 1789, we 
have engaged in four foreign wars : the war against England 
in 1812; the war against Mexico in 1845; the war against 
Spain in 1898, and the war with Germany in 1917. The 
declaration of war against the German Empire passed Con- 
gress by joint resolution and was signed by the President, 
April 6, 1917. It is in part as follows: 

"Whereas, the Imperial German Government has com- 
mitted repeated acts of war against the government and the 
people of the United States of America; 

Therefore, Be It Resolved, by the Senate and House of 
Representatives of the United States of America, in Con- 
gress assembled; That, the state of war between the United 
States and the Imperial German Government which has 
thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally 
declared; and that the President be, and he is, hereby au- 
thorized and directed to employ the entire naval and mili- 
tary forces of the United States and the resources of the 
government to carry on war against the Imperial German 
Government; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termi- 
nation, all the resources of the country are hereby pledged 
by the Congress of the United States." 

Cause 

Why did we declare war on Germany ? Because she 
made an attack upon us — upon our rights, our lives, our Na- 
tion. As Secretary of the Interior, Lane, said at the time: "It 
is a war to save America, to preserve self-respect, to justify 
our right to live as we have lived, not as some one else 
wishes us to live. * * ,* For America is not the name of so 
much territory ; it is a living spirit, born in travail, grown 
in the rough school of bitter experiences, a living spirit 
which has purpose and pride and conscience — knows why 
it wishes to live and to what end." Because of broken 
promises, because of outraged Belgium and desecrated 



50 AMERICA AT WAR 

France, because of the Russia that is to be and the Eng- 
land that is, we declared war. The government which has 
no conscience is intolerable to the American sense of justice 
and right, and incompatible with international arbitration. 
President Wilson stated, April 15, 1917, "There is not a 
single selfish element so far as I can see in the cause we are 
fighting for. We are fighting for what we believe to be the 
rights of mankind and we wish for the future peace and 
security of the world." May 30, he said, "In one sense 
the great struggle into which we have now entered is an 
American struggle because it is in defense of American 
honor and American rights, but it is something even greater 
than that ; it is a world struggle. It is the struggle of 
men who love liberty everywhere." To the government of 
Russia, the President said, June 9, 1917, "The position of 
America in this war is so clearly avowed that no man 
can be excused for mistaking it. She seeks no material 
profit or aggrandizement of any kind. She is fighting 
for no advantage or selfish object of her own, but for 
the liberation of peoples everywhere from the aggressions 
of autocratic force. The brotherhood of mankind must no 
longer be a fair but empty phrase ; it must be given a 
structure of force and reality." 

The Effect of the Declaration in Europe 
Immediately, upon our declaration of war with Ger- 
many, telegrams of congratulations came to President Wil- 
son from the Allied nations. A few neutral nations sent 
expressions of approval. Cuba and Panama declared war 
on Germany. Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with 
Germany and on April 14 seized German ships in Brazilian 
ports. Premier Lloyd George in his message to the Amer- 
ican people said, "America has at one bound become a 
world power in a sense she never was before. She waited 
until she found a cause worthy of her traditions. The 
American people held back until they were fully convinced 



AMERICA AT WAR 51 

that the fight was not a sordid scrimmage for power and 
possessions, but an unselfish struggle to overthrow a sin- 
ister conspiracy against human liberty and human rights." 
About one hundred German vessels, representing a 
tonnage of 600,000, were taken over by the United States 
Government April 6 ; the crews were turned over to immi- 
gration authorities. Practically every ship was damaged 
by order of the German Embassy. Fourteen Austrian ships 
were also taken over. 

April 8, the government of Austria-Hungary severed 
diplomatic relations with the government of the United 
States. Baron von Zweidinck, Charge d'Affaires, called 
for his passports and those of his staff. A note was 
handed to the American Charge dAffaires, in Vienna to 
the effect that Austria, because she was an ally of the 
German Empire, had decided to break off diplomatic rela- 
tions with the United States. 

Nature of the Struggle 

Our entrance into the war created many problems of 
national character which called for immediate considera- 
tion. Attention was at once given to the strengthening 
of the Navy and the Army ; these were great tasks, but 
probably not the greatest. The government had no greater 
task than to convince the American people of the grim and 
terrible struggle which it had undertaken. This being, not 
the soldiers' war alone, but the civilians' war as well. 
There were some things to be done without which fighting 
would have been fruitless. It was apparent that we must 
not only provide food and clothing for our armies and for 
ourselves, but help to supply our Allies as well. Every 
phase of our industrial life underwent a change for ef- 
ficiency; millions of loyal citizens in home and field, in 
factory and in mine were enlisted in a great service army 
for the cause of democracy. 



52 AMERICA AT WAR 

Military Interests 

April 14, both houses of Congress passed a bill which 
authorized the issuance of bonds to the amount of 
$5,000,000,000, $3,000,000,000 of which was to be loaned 
to the Allies; also the issuance of Treasury Certificates 
for $2,000,000,000 ultimately to be met by taxation. This 
proposed bond issue of $5,000,000,000 is the largest in the 
history of the world. It is about one-tenth of the national 
income of the United States for the year 1916. The first 
popular offering of bonds was for the sum of $2,000,000,000 
to close June 15, 1917. The interest rate was 3i/ 2 %. Large 
corporations, notably railroads, industrial, commercial and 
banking institutions made subscriptions for their employees, 
allowing them to subscribe on the installment plan ; in this 
way giving the loan a wide distribution. The total of the 
subscriptions was $3,035,226,850, an oversubscription of 
$1,035,226,850. More than 4,000,000 men and women sub- 
scribed. 

The first American gun was fired April 19, thirteen days 
after the declaration of war, from the steamship Magnolia. 
Captain Rice reported from Liverpool, and stated that the 
shot was fired at a German submarine. Hostilities were 
opened. The first contingents of the first United States 
army to fight in Europe arrived in France June 26 and 27, 
1917. The order to sail for France had been given May 
18. German submarines twice attacked the transports while 
crossing but were beaten off. Major General William L. 
Sibert was the commander in charge of the troops. 

General Pershing said, June 30, "The landing of the 
first American troops has been a complete success. The 
men are exceptionally well camped and cared for, with 
substantial wooden barracks, good beds, good food and the 
best sanitary arrangements. They are located on high 
ground. For all this we are deeply indebted to French 



AMERICA AT WAR 53 

co-operation with members of my staff." Intensive train- 
ing of these troops began July 25. 

General Pershing 

The landing of General Pershing himself in France was 
an event of great historic significance. For the first time 
in the history of our country America appeared, sword in 
hand, upon the ancient battle fields of Europe. France ral- 
lied to the Stars and Stripes ; thousands in the streets 
of Paris cheered the approach of General Pershing, cry- 
ing, "Vive 1'Amerique !" Bands played the Star Spangled 
Banner and the Marseillaise. All waved American flags. A 
new inspiration and hope came to the depleted French 
nation which, for three long weary years, had been fight- 
ing the Teutonic invaders. The French soldiers greeted 
our boys with an enthusiasm, a sympathy and a spirit of 
comradeship growing out of a united determination to 
fight to the end for the same great cause, the freeing 
of a world from oppressive autocracy. From that day the 
spiritual bond which has always existed between laughter- 
loving, impetuous Fiance and America, the love of the Free 
lias been drawn the closer. 

Previous to the war, General Pershing proved himself 
worthy of the great position as head of the American 
troops in France. His early life fitted him unqualifiedly 
to lie a great and successful leader. Coming from the very 
heart of America, the hills of Missouri, a poor boy, he 
taught school to support himself while struggling for a 
meager education ; winning entrance to West Point by a 
competitive examination, his training shaped itself along 
military lines. In the war with Spain he distinguished him- 
self at San Juan and Santiago de Cuba and was commended 
highly for "personal gallantry, untiring energy and faith- 
fulness." General Baldwin said of him there, "I have been 



54 AMERICA AT WAR 

in many fights through the Civil War but Captain Pershing 
is the coolest man under fire I ever saw in my life." 

In the Philippines Pershing exhibited discretion, judg- 
ment and restraint. He was given temporary command of 
five troops of the 15th cavalry with a battery of artillery, 
a company of engineers and a battalion of the 27th infantry 
at Camp Vicars in the Lake Lanao district of Mindanao. He 
learned to speak the Moro language and conducted negotia- 
tions with the Moros. President Roosevelt complimented 
him by name in 1908 for his efficiency as a fighter and an 
administrator. 

General Pershing was married to Miss Frances Warren 
just as he received the appointment of military attache at 
Tokyo; he and his bride expected to go to Japan, but he 
was sent instead to Manchuria as the American observer 
with the Japanese army. Incidentally he gained a speaking 
knowledge of Japanese, French and Spanish. 

August 27, 1915. his wife and three of their four chil- 
dren were burned to death in the fire in San Francisco 
that destroyed the Presidio. Warren Pershing, a boy, was 
left. Immediately following this disaster, Pershing was or- 
dered to the Mexican border. Of conditions there he said, 
"We do not want war if we can in any way honorably avoid 
it ; but we do not hesitate to make war if the cause of 
civilization and progress demands it." This written before 
we thought of entering the world war against Germany 
summarizes our spirit in the conflict "over there" and is 
still General Pershing's attitude as he marshals our troops 
on foreign soil for the cause of civilzation and progress. 

Conscription Bill 

Congress passed the Conscription Bill May 18, 1917, 
after a month's debate, providing for a system of selective 
drafts between the ages of 21 and 31 years, whereby men 
could be taken by the government. The first step putting 



AMERICA AT WAR 65 

this law into operation was the registration of all male resi- 
dents between the ages of 21 and 31. The President by- 
proclamation fixed upon June 5, 1917, as the day of regis- 
tration. Each man registering was given a number, disre- 
garding sequence of any kind. The numbers were placed 
in a lottery and July 20, 1917, the order in which the men 
would be called was determined by drawing these numbers 
and listing them in the order drawn. 

Class 1, under the draft included single men without 
dependent relatives ; men who had habitually failed to sup- 
port their families ; those who were dependent on their 
wives for support or were not usefully engaged and whose 
families were supported independent of their labor; unskilled 
farm laborers; unskilled industrial laborers; registrants by 
or in respect to whom no deferred classification was claimed 
or made; registrants who failed to submit a questionaire 
or in respect of whom no deferred classification was claimed 
or made, and all registrants not included in any other di- 
vision of the schedule. The first draft brought a total of 
9,586,508; 6,503,559 were not called by the board; 3,082,949 
were summoned to appear. Of these 1,057,363 were certified 
for service and 687,000 were named in the first call. As 
opposed to 32% in the Civil War, 23.7% were rejected for 
physical disability. 

January 7, 1918, the United States Supreme Court 
passed upon seven cases arising under the selective draft 
law, and declared the law constitutional. 

June 23-30, 1917, was recruiting week in America. The 
call was for unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 40. 
By the middle of July, 1917, nearly one-half million men had 
volunteered for service in the various branches. By act of 
Congress June 3, 1916, the National Guard is subject to 
call on draft by the Federal authorities. Thus our fighting 
forces are made up of three parts, the Jtegular Army, ob- 
tained by volunteers, the New National Army obtained by 



•56 AMERICA AT WAR 

the draft, volunteers, and transfer from the regular army, 
and the National Guard, obtained by volunteers. 

According- to the War Department figures, it costs 
$156.71 to equip one infantryman for service in France; 
of this $101.62 is for clothing, $7.73 for eating utensils and 
$47.36 for equipment. The ranking of men is as follows: 
Private, first class Private, Corporal, Sergeant, first class 
Sergeant; Sergeant Major, of which there are different 
grades. The Regimental Sergeant Major is the highest en- 
listed man, or non-commissioned officer. Of the commis- 
sioned officers, the lowest is Second Lieutenant, then Lieu- 
tenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier 
General, Lieutenant General, and General. 

The following training camps were established: 

NAVY TRAINING CAMPS 

Navy training camps were established. Location and 
accommodation as follows: 

Philadelphia, for 5,000 men. 

Newport, R. I., for 6,000 men. 

Cape May, N. J., for 2,000 men. 

Charlestown, S. C, for 5,000 men. 

Pensacola, Fla., for 1,000 additional men. 

Key West, Fla., for 500 men. 

Mare Island, Cal., for 5,000 men. 

Puget Sound, Wash., for 5,000 men. 

Hingham, Mass., for 500 men. 

New Orleans, La., for 500 men. 

San Diego, Cal., for 2,500 men. 

Great Lakes Training Station. Chicago, accommodations 
for 15,000 additional recruits. 

Port Royal, S. C, 5,000 men of the Marine Corps; also 
a Marine Corps Camp at Quantico, Va., for 8,000 men. 

Hampton Roads naval operating base, 10,000 men. 



AMERICA AT WAR 57 

Mississippi Exposition Grounds, Gulfport, Miss., 3,500 
men. 

New York, a camp for 3,000 regulars adjoining- the navy 
yard; Pelham, N. Y., 5,000 reserves. 

OFFICERS' TRAINING CAMPS. 

Fort McPherson, Ga. (two camps). 
Fort Ogletrorpe, Ga. (two camps). 
Fort Myer, Va. (two camps). 
Fort Benjamin Harrison. Ind. (three camps). 
Fort Logan H. Roots, Ark. (two camps). 
Leon Springs. Tex. (two camps). 
Fort Riley, Kas. (two camps). 
Presidio, San Francisco, Cal. (one camp). 
! 

AVIATION FIELDS. 

1. Camp Kelley. Aviation Training Field, San Antonio, Texas. 

2. Chanute Aviation Training- Field, Rantoul. 111. 

3. Essington Aviation Field, Essington, Pa. 

4. Hazelhurst Aviation Training Field, Hempstead, N. Y. 

5. Langley Aviation Training Field, Hampton, Va. 

6. Love Field Aviation Training Field, Dallas Texas. 

7. Memphis Aviation Training Field, Memphis, Tenn. 

8. Selbridge Aviation Training Field, Mount Clemens, Mich. 

9. West Va. Aviation Field, Wellsburg, W. Va. 

10. Wilbur Wright Aviation Training Field, Fairfield Station, O. 

July 24, 1917, President Wilson signed the war air craft 
bill appropriating $640,000,000. As soon as the bill was 
signed, Howard Coffin, Chairman of the Aircraft Produc- 
tion Board, stated that the board was prepared to go to 
work at once. 

Our duty in the construction of aircraft is scarcely 
surpassed by our duty of furnishing ships on the sea. The 
supreme effort of the Allies is to determine the shortest 
method to end the war. There is no more important field of 
operation to that end, than the air of France and Belgium 



5S AMERICA AT WAR 

on the western front; to extinguish the military vision of 
the Hun and compel him to fight and perish on tre earth 
Such a victory is not ideal but altogether reasonable and 
practicable ; France and England have caught the vision 
but other enormous demands consume their resources. It 
remains for the United States to put its flag at the van of 
victory. 

Red Cross 

By this time the Red Cross had become active in Amer- 
ica The first of six fully organized and equipped hospital 
units arrived in England May 17, 1917. This unit was the 
first sanctioned by the United States Government to carry 
the American flag to the battle fields of France. The War 
Council of the Red Cross with Henry P. Davidson of the 
J. P. Morgan and Co. as Chairman, was created May 10, 
1917, to carry on relief work. The general purpose of the 
Council is to maintain hospitals, recreation huts and rest 
houses for the soldiers ; to care for the wounded and dis- 
abled; to furnish inhabitants in devastated areas with food, 
clothing, temporary shelter and agricultural implements ; to 
care for destitute children, and in all possible ways alleviate 
suffering in the belligerent countries. Not alone in Europe 
is the work carried on. Families of soldiers here in America 
are cared for ; needy children are fed and clothed. The 
money poured in to the Red Cross from every home in 
America supporting this great cause. By November, 1917, 
2,000 Red Cross nurses were on the field and 9,000 more 
were ready to go. The total donation of the American Red 
Cross up to that date was about $80,000,000. 

The origion of the Red Cross dates back to the time 
of the Crimean War, 1854-56, when Florence Nightingale, a 
wealthy English lady, visiting a soldiers' hospital was ap- 
palled by the dirty, unsanitary conditions and there decided 
to become a nurse. She became at once an "angel of mercv" 



AMERICA AT WAR 59 

to the sick and dying soldiers. Shortly after the war, 
Henri Dunant, a young Swiss, published a pamphlet de- 
scribing the horrors on the battlefield of Solferino; then 
followed the idea of an international organization to pre- 
pare in time of peace, for war, so that the scenes of the 
Crimean and Solferino might never be repeated. Representa- 
tives from fourteen nations met at Geneva, Switzerland, in 
1864, and organized the Red Cross. 

During our great Civil War, the care of the sick and 
wounded was under the charge of "The Sanitary Commis- 
sion." There were also many individuals who devoted their 
lives to the work. 

Dorothea Dix, a noted prison reform worker, volunteered 
her services and became Superintendent of Women Nurses; 
"Mother Bickerdye" devoted her life to the work of human- 
ity and inspired the respect of even the sternest of generals. 
A third noted worker was Clara Barton. Like Doro- 
thea Dix and "Mother Bickerdyke," she gave faithful serv- 
ice in our Civil War. Later, in 1870-1, during the Franco- 
Prussian War, she saw on the battlefields, squads of doc- 
tors and nurses each with a red cross on the sleeve. She 
was inspired with the idea of "Humanity" and "Neutrality" 
and. as a result of her efforts, the United States signed 
the Geneva treaty in 1882, and the American Red Cross 
was established, and Clara Barton was its first president. 

POPE'S APPEAL FOR PEACE. 

On August 14, 1917, there was sent to all the belligerent 
countries a great appeal for peace by the Pope of the Roman 
Catholic church. Such a document in the Middle Ages would 
have been effective in its purpose; even today, the. note car- 
ried great weight and at least brought about a more careful 
consideration and definition of their war purposes by the 
belligerents. The pope announced that his attitude to date 
in the war had been to maintain impartiality, to give as 



60 AMERICA AT WAR 

much charitable aid as possible, and to endeavor to bring the 
war to a close. He suggested certain definite proposals : 
that force should give way to arbitration ; that the freedom 
of the seas should be established ; that the evacuation of Bel- 
gium and France by Germany, and the evacuation of German 
colonies by the Allies be demanded ; that there be some 
definite settlement concerning Poland, Armenia and the 
Balkan States. While many of the vital issues of the war 
were enumerated by the Pope, he was severely criticized for 
his consistent neutrality, in that he failed to condemn Ger- 
man atrocities, the invasion of Belgium and violations of 
international law. 

THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY 

The reply to the Pope's note which President Wilson sent 
August 27, summarized the attitude of all the Allied nations; 
to the effect that, while it was a great and generous appeal, 
yet its acceptance would accomplish nothing in advance of 
conditions as they existed before the war. Since the ob- 
ject of the war is "to deliver the free peoples of the world" 
how could we stop until this is accomplished? "Responsible 
statesmen must now everywhere see, if they never saw be- 
fore, that no peace can rest securely upon political or eco- 
nomic restrictions meant to benefit some nations and cripple 
or embarras others ; upon vindictive action of any sort or 
any kind of revenge or deliberate injury." 

"Peace should rest upon the rights of peoples, not the 
rights of governments." Our purpose in the war was clearly 
stated and understood. The note further says: "We do not 
seek material advantage but the reparation of intolerable 
wrong and injustice. We cannot take the word of the pres- 
ent German rulers unless supported defintely by the German 
people. Before peace shall be possible, there must be not 
another "Scrap of Paper," but the annihilation of abso- 



AMERICA AT WAR 61 

lutism." Such was our answer to the Papal Note. 

This peace note was presented in the German Reichstag 
August 21, 1917, by Dr. Michaelis, the German Chancellor. 
He declared the policy of the German Empire to be in sym- 
pathy with the Pope's attitude, and denied the opinion that 
the initiative for the proposal came from the Etnente powers. 

While the Pope's appeal commanded great respect, the 
Allied powers felt that it did not squarely meet the issue 
at all points. The Pope's plan would construct a peace treaty 
based on the rights of governments — a plan wholly agree- 
able to the Central powers, while the Allied powers con- 
tended that no peace can be reached that is not based on 
the rights of the people dealt with in the treaty. The 
purpose of this, on the part of the Allies, is to protect the 
rights of the various peoples in the several Balkan states, 
as well as those of Belgium and Poland, against imperialism. 

Peace depends upon the curbing of arrogance, greed 
and privilege; upon the exaltation of the idea of justice; 
for peace is a bi-product of justice. 

Industrial Movements 

This is a war of resources and industry as well as of 
arms. The economic effect of the war made itself felt im- 
mediately. There was a decline in agricultural and manu- 
facturing production ; yet the requirement for these things 
remained as great. There was an increase in exports. The 
wheat export increased, also that of copper; foreign demand 
for iron and steel was four times as great. There was 
an increase in home demands as well, for ships, food, muni- 
tions, and coal. A shortage followed, caused not so much 
by the huge foreign demand as by local advance buying. 
Prices increased. The President asked Congress for legisla- 
tion to relieve these conditions. 



62 AMERICA AT WAR 

The Food Administration Act was passed August 10, 
1917, making Herbert Hoover Food Administrator. The 
act sought to stimulate production, to reduce waste of dis- 
tribution, to eliminate unreasonable profits and to direct 
wise consumption. It gave the President power to purchase, 
store and sell wheat, flour, meal, beans and potatoes; 
to regulate the price of coal and coke; to regulate the method 
of production, distribution and storage; to take over plants 
if necessary ; to manage the disposition of commodities neces- 
sary for the common defense, as food, fuel and seed. The 
manufacture of distilled spirits was greatly reduced. The 
making of whisky from grain ceased September 7, 1917. 

August 15, 1917. a $50,000,000 wheat corporation was 
formed to handle buying for the American Government. Dr. 
Harry A Garfield, chairman of the committee, fixed the 
price August .i0 at $2.20 a bushel. The bakers were brought 
under licenses which called for a standard loaf. This con- 
trol by the government disturbed vitally the great wheat 
markets, Chicago and St. Louis; the wheat was shipped south 
by way of the Gulf, and from there to both foreign and 
American ports. The Food Administration decided upon the 
amount of essential commodities which go abroad and to 
what country they go. August 24, the order was issued 
that all purchases for the Allied government should be 
made by an American commission for the War Industries 
Board. This was to prevent foreign agents from usurping the 
market in advance. 

Sugar as well as wheat had been closely controlled bv 
the government. Agreements as to prices were made 
with refiners ; wholesalers were limite3, also retailer 
as a result the public was informed what it should pay for 
sugar. Mr. Hoover fixed the price at $7.25 a hundred- 
weight for beet sugar at refining centers. Without such 



AMERICA AT WAR 63 

regulation, the price of sugar would have soared. When we 
consider the fact that prior to the war one-third of the 
world's beet sugar production came from Germany, and Aus- 
tria, and that we were called upon to furnish the Allies with 
the needed amount, besides supplying our own needs, we 
were surprised that the sugar situation remained so com- 
paratively normal. 

The coal situation called for control and regulation as 
well as the food situation. August 20, Robert S. Lovett, 
Federal Agent, gave coal shipment in the Northwest prece- 
dence over other business. August 21, the President fixed 
the base price of bituminous coal in all big coal districts at 
about $2.00 a ton; later raised it to $2.45. August 25, Dr. 
Harry A. Garfield was appointed Coal Administrator. Due 
to the alarming shortage in mid-winter, January 18, the 
ultimatum was issued, to the effect that the Nation's fac- 
tories should close for five days, and for ten weeks, each 
Monday should be regarded as a holiday. 

Another important national move w^as the passage of 
the Shipping Act by which all interstate commerce by water 
is controlled; and all cargo ships of more than 2,500 tons, 
413 in all, then in construction were requisitioned, and an 
Emergency Fleet Corporation with a capital stock of $50,- 
000,000 was organized. In its report the Shipping Board 
said, "The Corporation is now engaged in what is probably 
the greatest construction task ever attempted by a single 
institution. The Corporation has 16 offices in various parts 
of the country. It is supervising the building of 1,118 ves- 
sels in 116 shipyards distributed throughout the United 
States. It is disbursing for the construction of those ships 
something in excess of a billion dollars per annum. It is 
controlling substantially all the shipbuilding of the country 
other than of naval vessels, and its program calls for the 
completion in 1918 of eight times the tonnage delivered in 
1916." 



W AMERICA AT WAR 

The Navy 

In October, 1917, the naval authorities determined to 
build a number of destroyers costing 350 million dollars 
to be completed in April, 1919. Previously contracts 
had been signed for 335 submarines and 200 torpedo boats. 
January 16, 1918, Wm. B. Oliver, chairman of the sub- 
committee of the House Naval Affairs Committee, said that 
424 war vessels were being constructed, the largest build- 
ing program in the world. Thus we see the Navy has 
been growing. 

On February 22, 1917, our navy consisted of 351 ships, 
divided into two classes: 

(1) Those in full commission, fully officered and 
manned ready for service immediately upon notice ; there 
were 224 in all. Of these, the most important were, 1 pre- 
di-eadnaught, 13 dreadnaughts, 38 destroyers, 38 subma- 
rines, 3 armored cruisers and 18 gunboats. 

(2) Those not in full commission, but kept at a navy 
yard ready for use on short notice. Of these we had 127. 
The most important were, 13 second line battle ships, 33 
destroyers, 5 submarines, 7 armored cruisers and 17 tor- 
pedo boats. 

The navy has ever been a pre-eminent power of govern- 
ment in the history of nations. It is futile to attempt to 
fathom its possibilities. The army, in its narrow limits of 
mobility, appears insignificant when compared to a great 
navy, from whose threat no coast line is free. 

The Second Liberty Loan 

The campaign for the Second Liberty Loan was opened 
Ocotber 1, for an issue of $3,000,000,000. October 6, Con- 
gress appropriated $21,000,000,000 for war purposes and 
enacted the War Revenue Bill which provided for the rais- 
ing of $2,700,000,000 by taxation. A "Trading with the 




Jopyrisht, 191S, W O. Mclndoo 



AMERICA FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY 

(ON AND UNDER THE WAVE) 



AMERICA AT WAR 65 

Enemy Act" passed October 14, which provided for the 
supervision of all exports and imports ; for the use of enemy 
patent; for a strict censorship of news and for the licensing 
of foreign language publications by the War Trade Board. 

Government Control of Railroads 

The mobilizing of industries for war was effectively 
worked out in the instance of the railroads. April 11, only 
six days after the declaration of war, they were put under 
centralized control. Mr. Daniel Willard, of the Baltimore & 
Ohio Railroad, of the Advisory Committee of the Council 
of National Defense, asked for a meeting in Washington 
of all railroad presidents. Fifty appeared. Mr. Willard 
explained the need for running the mileage of railroad in 
this country as a single unit. A committee was appointed 
for this purpose. The movement would mean that upon 
command, any road should move coal or tin or any other 
needed commodity in preference to personal freight less 
essential for war purposes. Such action would be against 
the pecuniary interests of the roads, and is on the whole 
illegal ; nevertheless, by common agreement, such a system 
was accepted and successfully administered, preventing con- 
gestion in the shipping of necessary government supplies. 
The number of roads thus merged into one system was 693, 
operating 262,000 miles of track, using 2,326,987 freight 
cars, employing 1,750.000 persons and owned by 1,500,000 
security holders. 

This voluntary centralization was a stepping stone to 
government control, which became necessary under the com- 
plications which arose later in the year. While the Rail- 
road Committee accomplished much, the greater efficiency 
under government control became imperative. December 
26, by proclamation of the President, this immense indus- 
try passed under control of the government with Wm. G. 



66 AMERICA AT WAR 

McAdoo as Director General. December 28, the federal 
authorities began the operation of the roads. It was pur- 
posed in instigating the system to guarantee to each road an 
average amount of its earnings, for the years 1915, 
'16 and '17. Although the entire system of railroads is 
undoubtedly complex and the plan of federal control would, 
under normal conditions, bring about much argument, 
criticism and comment, the change of control was secured 
easily, quickly and effectively. The transportation business 
of the country for the government was placed in the hands 
of experienced railroad men. December 29, McAdoo issued 
his first order. Vigorous measures were taken to relieve 
congestion in the Eastern States especially. Traffic was 
ordered to be moved by the shortest route regardless of 
individual profit or convenience. Coal was given the right 
of way. In certain cases passenger trains were removed 
to make way for freight. Orders were given for all empty 
box cars to be sent to wheat producing centers. 

THE ESPIONAGE ACT. 

Another important Congressional Act was the Espion- 
age Act, which prescribes death or long imprisonment as 
punishment of convicted spies ; penalizes interference with 
foreign commerce; provides for the enforcement of neu- 
trality; authorizes seizure of shipments of arms designed 
for unlawful purposes; fixes penalties for injuring vessels 
in foreign commerce and for disturbing foreign relations ; 
puts new restrictions upon passports ; deals with censor- 
ship of the mails; provides for the extension and use of 
search warrants; confers on the President power to embargo 
exports ; specifies penalties for disloyalty. 



AMERICA AT WAR 67. 

LATER ACTIVITY 
War With Austria-Hungary 

December 7, 1917, war was declared between the United 
States and Austria-Hungary. The text of the resolution 
follows : 

"Whereas, the Imperial and Royal Austro- 
Ilungarian Government has committed repeated 
acts of war against the government and the people 
of the United States of America; therefore, be it 
Resolved, by the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives of the United States of America in Con- 
gress assembled, that a state of war is hereby de- 
clared to exist between the United States of Amer- 
ica and the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian 
Government and that the President be, and he is, 
hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire 
naval and military forces of the United States and 
the resources of the Government to carry on war 
against the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian 
Government; and to bring the conflict to a suc- 
cessful termination all the resources of the country 
are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United 
States." 

This step was not unlooked for by the American people. 
War with Austria, Germany's ally, was the natural conse- 
quence of repeated hostile moves during the year. The fact 
of the declaration was accepted with little comment through- 
out the country. 

Nations Against the Central Powers 

In the beginning of the new year, 1918, it might prove 
interesting to take a survey of the nations who either are 



•8 AMERICA AT WAR 

at war with the Central Powers, or have severed diplomatic 
relations: 

The nations at war are: 

Serbia, July 28, 1914, 

Russia, August 1, 1914, 

France, August 3, 1914, 

Belgium, August 4, 1914, 

Montenegro, August 7, 1914, 

Japan, August 23, 1914, 

Italy, May 23, 1915, 

Portugal, March 10, 1916, 

Rumania. August 28, 1916, 

United States, April 6, 1917, 

Cuba, April 7, 1917, 

Panama, April 7, 1917, 

Greece, June 29, 1917, 

Siam, July 22, 1917, 

Liberia, August 7, 1917, 

China, August 14, 1917. 

The following severed diplomatic relations: 

Bolivia, April 11, 1917, 

Guatemala, April 27, 1917, 

Honduras, May 17. 1917, 

Nicaragua, May 19, 1917, 

Haiti, June 17, 1917. 

Costa Rica, September 21, 1917, 

Peru, October 5, 1917, 

Uruguay, October 7, 1917, 

Ecuador, December 8. 1917. 

Wilson's Peace Terms 

When we see this extensive list of belligerents against 
the Central Powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, 
Roumania and Bulgaria, we realize that the conflict was 



A.MKRICA AT WAR 69 

not entered into by the Allies as a war of conquest, but we 
are fighting, not a war of simple aggression, but as a war 
for the establishment of a world principle of government and 
world arbitration. In his speech of January 8, 1918, Presi- 
dent Wilson, in the light of a year's participation in the 
struggle, more closely defines the necessary terms for peace, 
which are open peace terms ; absolute freedom of the seas ; 
equality of trade; guarantee for the reduction of armament; 
evacuation of Russia; evacuation of Belgium; restoration of 
French territory: readjustment of the Italian boundary: 
greater freedom for Austria: evacuation of Rumania, Ser- 
bia, Montenegro ; independence for the Balkan States ; open- 
ing of the Dardanelles to all nations ; establishment of an 
independent Polish state : establishment of a league of na- 
tions to preserve peace. Great Britain greeted Wilson's 
message enthusiastically, as embodying much the same ideas 
and principles as Lloyd George advocated in his speech a few 
days later. The speech met with popular approval in France. 

Gradually, the war made itself felt throughout this 
great country of ours After November 1, 1917, the United 
States had its weekly meatless day and one day a week 
without bread made of wheat flour. The use of sugar was 
restricted greatly to supply Fiance. The prices of wheat, an- 
thracite coal, copper, iron and steel were fixed to prevent 
specultion being the same for the Allies as for the 
American people. As appeared in the Paris report of the 
Chamber of Commerce December, 1917, "No restriction nor 
taxation has called forth protestations on the part of the 
public, who thus show their determination and willingness 
to deprive themselves of necessaries in order to help the 
Allies and win the war." There was automatic sav- 
ing throughout the country for the promotion of economy 
and thrift. War Saving Societies were organized by 
churches, lodges, clubs and the like. The pledge was to pur- 



TO AMERICA AT WAR 

chase war saving- stamps of a certain amount weekly, to aid 
the government by . buying only necessities, and to 
encourage economy among friends and associates as well. 
Regular meetings of these societies were held which 
proved helpful in the discussion of personal and family bud- 
gets. Besides organizing these societies, the government 
sent specially qualified men and women to all parts of the 
states for the purpose of giving helpful lectures upon the 
general situation regarding such matters as food, and agri- 
culture, advising people how to meet conditions. 

Results of Conservation 

Nor was our conservation futile. We gave ma- 
terial aid to our Allies. From the New York harbor alone, 
according to the Paris Chamber of Commerce report, $32,- 
825,000 worth of goods have been shipped each week ; two- 
thirds of these munitions consisting of army supplies ; 80,000 
establishments manufacturing munitions passed into the 
hands of the government. 50,000 engines were ordered for 
aviation. The Government planned to send 30,000 machines 
to France. In regard to shipping, the Shipping Board re- 
ported in November, 1917, 1,036 vessels, a total of 5,925,700 
tuns in the dockyards. 

Thus we see that the War Department performed 
a task of unparalleled magnitude in spite of delays and dif- 
ficulties, which appear in every department of the govern- 
ment in time of war. January 10, 1918, Secretary Baker 
summarized before the Senate Committee the achievements 
of the war department to date: "a large army is already 
in the field; the training of troops has been accomplished 
without seriously impairing ordinary industrial conditions ; 
the men are well cared for, both here and in France; no 
army of equal size in the history of the world has been 
raised, equipped or trained so quickly." 



AMERICA AT WAR 71 

January 28, Secretary Baker gave more in detail a 
summary of the work done by the department since war 
was declared. He reminded us that, "this is an unprecedented 
war, a war in which experts are engaged; a moving war in 
which the situation changes from hour to hour; a war that 
cannot be mapped out and planned carefully on a piece of 
paper in America, but a war which must be planned and 
fought on European ground and on European terms. It is 
not for us to theorize or extemporize about possible condi- 
tions; it is for us to meet the conditions which actually ex- 
ist in the trenches, to talk over carefully with men who have 
been on the grounnd 'over there' what the situation is and 
what is best for us to do to meet it. We have already 
accomplished what last August was pronounced impossible ; 
instead of having 50,000 or 100,000 men in France we have 
half a million ; and instead of having another paltry half 
million to send, we have one and a half million. It is not 
only soldiers which America has sent, but artisans, engi- 
neers, technicians, nurses, surgeons who are not only help- 
ing the Allies but are studying conditions so as to make 
them more favorable for our greater army when it does 
arrive on the battle line." The efficiency of our system was 
recognized even by our enemy ; in a confidential note issued 
by the German Government in June, 1917, the following re- 
mark was made, "While the news about American war pre- 
parations, such as the organizing and outfitting of an army 
of 1.000,000 men to reinforce the French-English front, is 
looked upon in that form as bluff, the spreading of which 
may unfavorably affect the opinion of the German people, 
yet, on the otrer hand, the fact must not be overlooked that 
the United States, with the support of its capacity for ma- 
terial and industrial management, is arming itself for war 
with great energy and tenacity." 



72 AMERICA AT WAR 

Submarine Damage 

Announcement was made January 30, 1918, that since 
the launching by Germany of unrestricted submarine warfare 
on February 1, 1917, 69 American ships, totaling 171,061 
gross tons, had been sunk by submarines, mines and raiders, 
and 300 persons drowned ; 107 German and Austrian ships 
of a gross tonage of 684,494 were seized and added to the 
American merchant marine ; 426 vessels, totaling more than 
2,000,000 tons, were requisitioned through the Shipping 
Board and contracts were awarded for 884 more ships. 

The sinking of the Tuscania February 5, 1918, was 
America's greatest military loss to date. It was a British 
vessel carrying American troops from Michigan and Wis- 
consin. Two thousand one hundred and seventy-nine Ameri- 
can soldiers were on board; about 164 were lost. The ves- 
sel was torpedoed off the coast of Ireland. 



AMERICA'S ACTIVITIES 

American troops were placed on the first line trenches 
January 31, 1918, on the Lorraine line, and were actively 
engaged in the great battle which started March 23, 1918. 

The first year of the war closed with an expenditure 
in money of about nine billion dollars. The casualties for 
the same period were as follows : 

The Army — 

Killed in action 183 

Lost at sea 237 

Died of wounds ■ 52 

Died of disease 793 

Suicide and unknown causes 39 

Wounded 777 

Captured ■■ 22 

Missing - 41 



AMERICA AT WAR 73 

The Navy- 
Killed— Officers 13 

Men .214 

Injured — Officers 2 

Injured — Men 28 

Prisoners 7 

During the first year we landed one-half million soldiers 
in Europe, built over 600 miles of railroad in France, includ- 
ing wharves, warehouses and docks. We entered the front 
line trenches, holding five different sectors. 

At home we greatly increased the army, the navy 
and the aircraft preparatory to hurling a tremendous force 
against the Hun. These achievements were great, but the 
greatest and eventually the most powerful preparation was 
the new mental attitude of the American people; uncertainty- 
gave way to determination; pacifism gave way to force; 
the millions were awakened; war became our business: war 
against conquest ; war against secret treaties in the interest 
of particular governments; war against aggrandizement; 
war seeking no less victory than to secure for the world a 
Christian democracy. 



74 



AMERICA AT WAR 



NATIONAL ARMY. 



Site Original Organization 

Aver, Mas-. 76th Division 



Yaphank, Long 77th Division 
Island, N. Y 

Wrightstown, N. J. 78th Division 

\nnapolis 79th Division 
Junction, Md. 

Petersburg, Va. 80th Division 



Columbia, S. C. 81st Division 

Atlanta, Ga. 82nd Division 

Chillicothe, O. SSrd Division 

Louisville, Ky S4th Division 

Battle Creek, Mich. 85th Division 

Rockford, 111 86th Division 

Little Rock, Ark. 87th Division 
Fort Logan H. Root, 

Des Moines, la. 88th Division 

Junction City, Kas. 89th Division 
Fort Riley, 

Fort Sam Houston, 

San Antonio, Tex. 90th Division 

American Lake, 91st Division 

Wash. 



Troops from Camp 

Maine, New Hampshire, Devens 
Vermont, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island 
and Connecticut. 

Metropolitan portion of Upton 

New York. 

Remainder of New Y'ork Dix 

and Northern Penn- 
sylvania. 

Southern Pennsylvania. Meade 

New Jersey, Virginia, Lee 

Maryland, Delaware, 

and the District of 

Columbia. 
Tennessee, North Caro- Jackson 

lina. South Carolina 

and Florida. 
Georgia and Alabama. Gordon 

Ohio and W. Virginia. Sherman 

Indiana and Kentucky. Taylor 

Michigan and Wisconsin. Custer 

Illinois. Grant 

Arkansas, Louisiana and Pike 

Mississippi. 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Dodge 

Iowa, North Dakota 

and South Dakota. 
Kansas, Missouri and Funston 

Colorado. 
Texas, Arizona, New Travis 

Mexico and Oklahoma. 
Washington, Oregon, Lewis 

California, Nevada, 

Utah, Idaho, Mon- 
tana and Wyoming. 



AMKRICA AT WAR 73 

The Navy- 
Killed— Officers 13 
Men 214 

Injured — Officers 2 

Injured — Men ... 28 

Prisoners 7 

During- the first year we landed one-half million soldiers 
in Europe, built over 600 miles of railroad in France, includ- 
ing wharves, warehouses and docks. We entered the front 
line trenches, holding five different sectors. 

At home we greatly increased the army, the navy 
and the aircraft preparatory to hurling a tremendous force 
against the Hun. These achievements were great, but the 
greatest and eventually the most powerful preparation was 
the new mental attitude of the American people; uncertainty 
gave way to determination; pacifism gave way to force; 
the millions were awakened; war became our business: war 
against conquest ; war against secret treaties in the interest 
of particular governments; war against aggrandizement; 
war seeking no less victory than to secure for the world a 
Christian democracy. 



AMERICA AT WAR 



NATIONAL ARMY. 



Site Original Organization 

Ayer, Mass. 76th Division 



Yaphank. Long 77th Division 
Island, N. Y 

Wrightstown, N. J. 78th Division 

Annapolis 79th Division 
Junction, Md. 

Petersburg, Va. 80th Division 



Columbia, S. C. 81st Division 

Atlanta, Ga. 82nd Division 

Chillicothe, O. 83rd Division 

Louisville, Ky 84th Division 

Battle Creek, Mich. 85th Division 

Rockford, 111 86th Division 

Little Rock, Ark 87th Division 
Fort Logan H. Root, 

Des Moines. la. 88th Division 

Junction City, Kas. 89th Division 
Fort Riley, 

Fort Sam Houston, 

San Antonio, Tex. 90th Division 

American Lake, 91st Division 

Wash. 



Troops from Camp 

Maine, New Hampshire, Devens 
Vermont, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island 
and Connecticut. 

Metropolitan portion of Upton 

New York. 

Remainder of New York Dix 

and Northern Penn- 
sylvania. 

Southern Pennsylvania. Meade 

New Jersey, Virginia, Lee 

Maryland, Delaware, 

and the District of 

Columbia. 
Tennessee, North Caro- Jackson 

lina, South Carolina 

and Florida. 
Georgia and Alabama. Gordon 

Ohio and W. Virginia. Sherman 

Indiana and Kentucky. Taylor 

Michigan and Wisconsin. Custer 
Illinois. Grant 

Arkansas, Louisiana and Pike 

Mississippi. 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Dodge 

Iowa, North Dakota 

and South Dakota. 
Kansas, Missouri and Funston 

Colorado. 
Texas, Arizona, New Travis 

Mexico and Oklahoma. 
Washington, Oregon. Lewis 

California. Nevada, 

Utah. Idaho, Mon- 
tana and Wyoming. 



AMERICA AT WAR 



Site 

Charlotte, 
N. C 

Spartanburg, 
S. C. 
Augusta, Ga. 



Anniston, Ala 

Greenville, S. C. 

Macon, Ga, 

Waco, Tex. 

Houston, Tex 

Deming, N. M. 

Lawton, Ok. 

Fort Sill, 

Okla. 

Fort Worth, Tex. 

Montgomery, Ala. 

Hattiesburg. 
.Miss. 
Alexandra, La. 



NATIONAL GUARD. 

Original Organization Troops from 

.Maine, New Hampshire, 



Camp 
Greene 



26th Division 
(old 5) 

27th Division 

(old 6) 
28th Division 

(old 7) 
29th Division 

(old 8) 



Vermont, Massachu- 
setts Rhode Island 
and Connecticut. 
New York 

Pennsylvania 



Wadsworth 
Hancock 



30th Division 
(old 0) 

.'list Division 
(old 10) 



New Jersey, Virginia, McClellan 
Maryland, Delaware 
and the District of 
Columbia. 
Tennessee, North Caro- Sevier 

lina and South Caro- 
lina. 
Georgia, Alabama and Wheeler 
Florida. 
32nd Division Michigan and Wiscon- MacArthur 

(old 11) sin. 

33rd Division Illinois. Logan 

(old 12) 
.".4th Division Minnesota, Iowa, Ne- Cody 

(old 13) 
35th Division 

(old 14) 
36th Division 

(old 15) 
.".7th Division 

(old 16) 
38th Division 

(old 17) 
39th Division 

(old 18) 



Minnesota, Iowa, Ne- 
braska, North Dakota 
and South Dakota. 

Missouri and Kansas. Doniphan 
(also 140th Division) 

Texas and Oklahoma. Bowie 

Ohio and West Virginia. Sheridan 
Indiana and Kentucky. Shelby 



Louisiana, Mississippi Beauregard 
and Arkansas. 

Linda Vista. 40th Division California, Nevada, Kearny 

Cal. (old 19) Utah, Colorado, Ari- 

zona and New Mexico. 
Palo Alto. Cal. 41st Division Washington, Oregon, Fremont 

(old 20) Montana, Idaho and 

Wyoming 
SCHOOL OF FIRE FOR FIELD ARTILLERY AT LAWTON. OKLA. 



76 AMERICA AT WAR 

EVENTS IN EUROPE FROM APRIL OF 1917 TO 
APRIL OF 1918 

The great German offensive was checked in the early 
spring of 1917, and much of the territory which they had 
captured was again occupied by the Allies. On April 9, 
1917, occurred the great Allied victory in the famous 
battle of Vimy Ridge, in which the Canadian troops were 
conspicuous in valor together with their French allies. 
The Germans lost town after town, before the ad- 
vancing lines of the Allies. While the German armies Avere 
retreating to their Eastern fortification for shelter, Lin- 
denburg, their advising angel, was assuring them that they 
could now afford to wait further victory until the submarine 
had starved England. 

The Russian Revolution 

In the midst of these great military movements on the 
western front, the Russian revolution broke suddenly upon 
the scene ; the Czar, the Russian court, and the German 
peace intrigues were all banished by the Russian terror. 
This brought revolution dangerously near to the door of Ger- 
many. She now began to speak encouragingly of democracy 
and the freedom of nationalities — under her own guidance, 
of course. But Russia, apparently, turned a deaf ear; then 
came internal quarreling until she stood hesitant; racked by 
discord, and robbed of victory. The immediate effect of the 
Russian revolution was to confuse the war issues. 

The temporary weakness and inaction of Russia en- 
abled Austria to meet successfully the splendid Italian 
offensive in May, on the Carso. The attack lasted for eight- 
een days, during which time the Italian army evinced great 
determination and sustained fighting power. 
Germany Checked 

On the Western front, Germany was attempting to reach 
Calais in May. She was defeated in this attempt, however, 



AMERICA AT WA1I 



being driven back by the Allies in the famous battle of 
Ypres. The retreat was accomplished with a great loss of 
men to Germany; on the other hand, it enabled the Allies to 
effect the desired straightening of their line from Zillebeke 
to Armentieres. 

July 1, under the personal magnetic leadership of Ker- 
ensky, Russia again began an offensive along the northern 
course of the Zlota Lipa. The town of Koniuchy was taken 
first, with about 10,000 prisoners. This attack was signifi- 
cant in that it evidenced the compact fighting spirit of 
Russia in spite of alleged disintegration. Again, the Rus- 
sians attacked south of Dniester, breaking the Austrian line; 
the Lukwa River was reached and crossed; the Russians oc- 
cupied the town of Kabisz, the most important along the 
river, and the seat of the Austrian headquai'ters. 

On July 14, 1917, Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Im- 
perial Chancellor since 1909, was forced to resign and was 
succeeded by Dr. George Michaelis. A complete reorganiza- 
tion of the ministry followed. The political crisis in Russia 
was making itself felt in Germany. News that the United 
States had entered the conflict was not welcome to German 
ears. General dissatisfaction with the conduct of war which 
leaked out through newspaper comments, was pacified mo- 
mentarily with the promise of a separate peace with Russia 
and a rapid termination of the war. 

Three General Movements 

In the month of August, three general movements stand 
out: the great Italian offensive, the occupation of Riga by 
the Germans, and the French expansion north of Verdun. 
The Italian offensive began on August 18; in twenty-five 
days of fighting they straightened their line to include 
Vodice Ridge and the steppes of Monte Santo. Thus a foot- 
hold on the northern part of the Bainsizza Plateau was 






78 AMERICA AT WAR 

gained. The city of (Riga is half German, and of little mili- 
tary value ; therefore, the German occupation was not a 
serious menace. Over on the western front, August 20, the 
French pushed forward along the Meuse, taking the fortifi- 
cations between Avocourt and Bezonvaux ; on the 21st they 
proceeded still farther, taking over 5,000 prisoners. 

Early in September the Germans ordered the civil popu- 
lation of several towns in Flanders to leave. The engage- 
ments during the month took the Allies to the Ypres-Roulers 
road. The losses of the German army were heavy; those of 
the Allies comparatively slight. By the last of September, 
the fighting in Flanders for Passchendaele Ridge concerned 
itself more for the occupation of commanding positions, than 
the winning of any specific battles. 



Germany Threatens Russia and Italy 

In October of 1917, the British gained land east of 
Ypres of especial strategic importance for further attack. 
Russia, however, was at this time suffering the loss of im- 
portant islands in the Baltic Sea. On September 21, the 
Germans captured Jacobstadt. They controlled the Baltic; 
and the bases Reval, Vibrog and Kronstadt were in danger. 

November 17, witnessed the alarming retirement of the 
Italian line, and further trouble in Russia ; but, counter- 
balancing these events was the conquest of Palestine by the 
British, the gains in Flanders by the Allies, and the actual 
presence of American troops on the front. A supreme war 
council for coordination of effort was formed by Great Brit- 
ain, Italy and France, which step greatly solidified the Allied 
forces. The situation in Italy was so grave, and the possi- 
bility of the fall of Venice so threatening, that this city 
was practically evacuated and her art treasures were re- 
moved. 



AMERICA AT WAR 79 

ORIGIN OF VENICE 

It may be of interest to recall the origin of Venice, 
known in ancient times as the "eldest daughter of the Roman 
Empire," and as the "Carthage of the Middle Ages." In 451, 
Attila, leader of the Aryan Huns, overran the weak Roman 
Empire. He crossed the Rhine into Gaul ; leaving devasta- 
tion in his wake, he moved into Italy with fire and sword, 
and, so dreadful was his destruction, that he was known as 
the "scourge of God." The Veneti of northern Italy fled for 
safety to the low marshy country at the head of the Adri- 
atic; upon the scanty patches of dry ground they built their 
rude huts from which beginning came the beautiful city of 
Venice, lately threatened with destruction by the Huns of 
the Twentieth Century. 

On November 19. 1917, news was received that the 
Hun invasion had met resistance at the River Piave, hence 
immediate danger was averted. 

Closing Events 

Germany's attempt throughout had been to fight Russia 
with diplomacy rather than with force of arms. An armis- 
tice for four weeks on the eastern front from the Baltic to 
the Black Sea was agreed upon, on December 17. As a re- 
sult, the removal of troops to the Western front added mate- 
rially to the strength of the German new offensive and 
aggravated the peril of the Allies. 

In Italy, the situation remained the same. 

In German East Africa, the last armed resistance was 
crushed by Great Britain, completing the conquest of Ger- 
man colonial possessions. Thus Germany's dream of colonial 
empire came to an end. 

On December 31, 1917, the French troops recaptured 
Monte Tombe, taking 1,400 prisoners. The Austrian line was 



80 AMERICA AT WAR 

pushed northward, and the Italians were successful in a 
series of engagements. 

The political situation in Russia interfered during this 
period with any military action on their part. Ukrania 
signed a separate peace with Germany, followed by Rumania 
and Finland. Russia was rendered useless to the Allies ; at 
the same time she afforded Germany an outlet to Asia. 

March 21, 1918, the battle of Picardy, the most des- 
perate battle in history, began with the great German offen- 
sive. Four million men were engaged in combat along 150 
miles of battle front. General Foch was made commander 
in chief of the allied armies March 28, 1918. In the attack, 
the Germans advanced in the region between Ypres and 
Labassee. Their gains in territory were small, scarcely 
enough to bury their dead ; and the great battle of Picardy, 
like Verdun, the Somme and the Marne, gave the victory to 
the Allies. The Hun had met the allied strategy of the 
world, a strategy supported by an increasing strength of all 
that is best and noblest in the fulfillment of the brotherhood 
of man. 




Copyright. 1918, W. 0. Mclndoo 




COPYRIGHT 1918 W. O.'MC INDOO 




COPYRIGHT 1918 W. O MC INDOO 



ANNOUNCEMENT J 

OF 

SERVICE 

We are prepared to serve purchasers of our "UNIQUE 
SOUVENIR ALBUM" at small cost, as follows: 

1 . Additional copies of this book may be had. 

2. Additional parts of this book are for sale. 

a A biography or service record of a soldier will be extended by 
us at a small cost. 

I b Additional blank leaves with decorated border I dozen lots only ) 
for sale. 

, c "THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY" by Elmer 
E. Rush, M. A. 

A concise account of the establishment and development of modern 
democracy in America, illustrated by original paintings, reproduced 
in colors. 

(d) "THE EUROPEAN WAR" by W. N. Sage, M. A. (Oxon) 
A detailed account of the causes and the events from its outbreak to the 
entrance as a belligerent of the United States of America. In this 
account is related the awful story under the following headings : 
CHAPTER I CHAPTER IV 

The Causes of the War Early Attempts and Failures 

CHAPTER II CHAPTER V 

The German Onrush Verdun and the Somme 

CHAPTER III CHAPTER VI 

The First Winter Germany Against the World 

CONCLUSION— To Make the World Safe for Democracy 

"AMERICA AT WAR" by Elmer E. Rush, M. A. 
The attitude of our Government and the events to date. 

All material furnished on paper, cut and punched to fit the album. 
For Further Information, Write 

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Grand Avenue Temple Dist * ihutors Kansas City, Mo. 






H 234 85 



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